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PRACTICAL  PHOTOGRAPHY,  NO.  8 

THE  ELEMENTS  OF 
PHOTOGRAPHY 


Edited  by 

FRANK  R.  FRAPRDE,  S.M.,   F.R.P.S. 

Editor  of  American  Ptiotosrraptiy 


THIRTIETH  THOUSAND 
Revised  and  Enlarged 


AMERICAN  PHOTOGRAPHIC 
PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

BOSTON.  MASSACHUSETTS 
1919 


COPTRIGHT,   1912,  BY 
FRANK  R.  FRAPRIE 

Copyright,  1919,  by 

AMERICAN   PHOTOGRAPHIC 
PUBLISHING  CO.  , 


Stanbope  prtx 

F.    H.  GILSON   COMPANT 
BOSTON,  U.S.A. 


THE  GETTY  CEtiXES 
LIBRARY 


The  Elements  of  Photography 


THIS  little  book  is  intended  for  the  beginner, 
and  we  shall  endeavor  to  express  ourselves  in 
as  simple  and  concise  a  manner  as  possible. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  more  than  probable  that  the  amateur 
photographer  who  has  had  some  experience  with  the 
camera  may  find  in  its  pages  some  useful  information. 
Our  idea  has  been  to  condense  as  much  practical  advice 
as  is  possible  within  the  limits  of  these  pages. 

A  Little  about  the  Chemistry  of  Photography.  — 
This  heading  may  seem  at  first  glance  to  be  taking  up 
photography  at  the  wrong  place,  but  anyone  who  is 
just  beginning  to  take  pictures  will  find  it  especially 
helpful  to  obtain  first  of  all  a  good  general  idea  of  the 
chemical  principles  involved  in  the  various  processes. 
In  this  way  he  will  be  enabled  to  work  more  intelli- 
gently and  to  avoid  some  of  the  mistakes  that  he  might 
make  if  working  in  the  dark,  using  the  term  metaphori- 
cally as  well  as  literally. 

Many  years  ago  it  was  observed  that  certain  sub- 
stances containing  silver  were  blackened  when  exposed 
to  the  light  for  some  time.  Later  it  was  found  that 
when  some  of  these  substances  were  exposed  for  a  very 
short  time,  so  short,  in  fact,  that  no  blackening  could 
be  noticed,  nevertheless  a  change  took  place  which 
caused  them  to  darken  when  treated  with  certain 
chemicals.     The  whole  art  of  modern  photography  is 

3 


4      THE   ELEMENTS   OF  PHOTOGRAPHY 

based  on  these  observations.  If  we  should  prepare 
one  of  these  silver  compounds,  mix  it  with  gelatine  so 
as  to  form  a  thick  paste,  spread  it  on  a  glass  plate  and 
let  it  dry,  what  we  would  have  would  be  practically 
the  ordinary  dryplate.  When  the  sensitive  coat  or 
emulsion,  as  it  is  called,  is  spread  upon  a  thin  trans- 
parent sheet  of  celluloid,  we  have  the  film.  This  is  the 
principle  of  the  whole  thing,  though  the  practical  part 
is  more  difficult.  Some  of  these  silver  compounds  are 
much  more  sensitive  to  the  light  than  others,  and  the 
plate  manufacturer  has  to  make  up  his  emulsion  so  as 
to  get  just  the  right  degree  of  sensitiveness,  and  then 
spread  it  uniformly  and  evenly  on  the  glass. 

Exposing  a  Plate.  —  Now,  what  happens  when  we 
make  an  exposure  ?  You  know  that  white  sunlight  is 
composed  of  several  different  kinds  of  light,  the  seven 
colors  of  the  rainbow.  Some  kinds  of  light,  such  as 
the  violet,  have  a  very  marked  influence  on  the  silver 
compounds,  while  the  red,  on  the  other  hand,  has  but 
very  little  effect.  For  this  reason  we  load  the  plates 
into  the  holder  by  ruby  light.  Then  we  make  the 
exposure,  perhaps  for  fifteen  seconds,  perhaps  for  a 
hundredth  of  a  second.  The  light,  passing  through 
the  lens,  acts  on  the  sensitive  silver  film,  the  amount 
of  action  depending,  of  course,  on  the  amount  of  light. 
The  amount  of  light  reflected  from  a  white  house,  for 
example,  would  have  much  more  effect  than  would  the 
light  from  a  green  tree. 

Purpose  of  the  Developer.  —  We  take  the  exposed 
plate  into  the  darkroom  and  look  at  it.  It  looks  just 
as  it  did  before  the  exposure.  Apparently  there  has 
been  no  change.  But  that  a  change  of  some  kind  has 
taken  place  will  be  evident  as  soon  as  we  put  the  plate 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY      5 

into  the  developer.  The  developer  contains  a  re- 
ducing agent,  that  is  to  say,  some  chemical  which  has 
the  power  of  converting  the  silver  compound  into 
metallic  silver.  But,  and  here  is  the  important  part  of 
it  all,  the  developer  can  act  only  on  that  part  of  the 
sensitive  compound  which  has  been  already  acted  on 
by  the  light.  If  we  should  put  an  unexposed  plate 
into  the  developer  it  would  have,  for  a  very  long  time, 
no  action  on  it  at  all.  Wherever  the  strongest  light 
has  struck  the  plate,  there  the  developer  acts  most 
strongly,  and  vice  versa.  Hence,  when  we  develop  we 
get  a  very  black  deposit  of  finely  divided  metallic 
silver  where  the  white  house  was,  and  very  little 
blackening  for  our  green  tree. 

Fixation.  —  After  developing  the  plate,  we  have, 
then,  a  certain  amount  of  metallic  silver  deposited  in 
it,  but  we  have  also  a  good  deal  of  the  sensitive  silver 
compound  which  has  not  been  acted  on  by  the  light, 
and  consequently  has  not  been  reduced  by  the  de- 
veloper. It  would  spoil  the  plate  to  take  it  out  into 
the  light  with  this  still  on  it,  so  we  must  get  rid  of  it. 
This  we  can  do  by  means  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  in 
the  fixing  bath.  The  hypo  unites  with  the  silver  com- 
pound, which  is  insoluble,  to  form  a  soluble  compound 
which  dissolves  out  in  the  hypo  solution.  Then  we 
wash  all  of  the  hypo  out  of  the  film  and  dry  it.  This 
gives  us  a  negative. 

Principle  of  Toning.  —  The  chemical  changes  which 
take  place  in  printing  are  about  the  same  as  those  just 
mentioned.  If  we  are  using  gaslight  paper,  for  ex- 
ample, just  the  same  things  happen  that  did  in  the 
case  of  the  dryplate,  and  we  develop  and  fix  in  a  simi- 
lar way.     With  printing-out  paper,  however,  things 


5     THE  ELEMENTS  OF   PHOTOGRAPHY 

are  a  little  different.  This  paper  is  coated  with  a 
different  silver  compound  which  darkens  in  the  light 
without  the  use  of  a  developer.  Hence,  when  this  is 
exposed  under  a  negative,  we  get  the  picture  in  its  full 
strength  without  development.  But,  since  the  paper 
is  not  so  sensitive  as  the  plates,  we  have  to  do  this  in 
stronger  light,  generally  in  direct  sunlight.  We  might 
now,  if  we  wished,  fix  the  print  in  hypo  and  wash  it, 
and  our  picture  would  be  completed.  But  the  reddish 
■color  obtained  in  this  way  is  not  especially  pleasing, 
so  we  resort  to  toning,  which  consists  in  replacing  the 
silver  image  by  one  of  gold,  that  is,  in  reality  we  gold- 
plate  the  picture. 

The  Camera.  —  The  cameras  used  in  photography 
all  combine,  in  their  construction,  three  elements. 
First,  they  consist  of  a  lightproof  box;  second,  they 
have  at  one  end  a  lens,  and  third,  at  the  opposite  end 
a  plateholder.  The  lens  casts  an  image  on  the  photo- 
graphic plate  or  film  in  the  holder,  and  this  image  or 
light  affects  the  sensitive  surface  of  the  plate,  an  in- 
visible picture  being  produced  thereon. 

The  Choice  of  a  Camera.  —  This  is  usually  the  first 
question  which  perplexes  the  beginner,  unless  a  camera 
has  been  presented  to  him.  Assuming  that  a  camera 
is  to  be  purchased,  the  first  decision  must  be  as  to 
whether  plates  or  films  are  to  be  used.  With  the 
present  perfection  of  photographic  processes  and 
apparatus,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  obstacles  to  be 
overcome  will  be  fewer  and  the  chances  of  initial  suc- 
cess greater  if  a  film  camera  is  purchased.  The  opera- 
tions of  loading,  focusing  and  developing  are  all 
Tendered  as  simple  as  possible  by  improved  "all  by 
daylight  "  methods,  and  it  is  almost  impossible  not  to 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF   PHOTOGRAPHY      7 

produce  perfect  pictures  with  a  kodak  and  a  developing 
tank.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  more  of  the  theory  of 
photography  is  wanted,  there  are  more  obstacles  to  be 
overcome,  and  more  things  to  be  learned  when  a  plate 
camera  is  used.  Some  study  of  optics  and  chemistry 
is  indispensable  to  the  satisfactory  manipulation  of  a 
plate  camera,  so  that  its  educational  value  may  be 
greater. 

If  a  film  camera  is  to  be  purchased,  the  nearest 
dealer  will  give  all  necessary  advice.  The  principal 
thing  is  to  make  as  large  an  outlay  as  possible  and  get 
the  most  elaborate  model  you  can  afford,  because 
sooner  or  later  you  will  change  for  the  better  camera 
if  not  purchased  at  first.  If  economy,  however,  is 
necessary,  you  may  purchase  even  a  Brownie  or  a 
Buster  Brown,  with  entire  confidence  that  it  will  do 
perfectly  the  work  for  which  it  is  intended.  The 
cheaper  models  are  fitted  with  single  lenses  and  have 
only  one  speed  of  snapshot  exposure,  hence  they  can 
be  used  successfully  only  in  bright  sunlight  between  9 
and  3  o'clock.  One  of  their  advantages  is  that  they 
do  not  require  focusing  or  setting  the  shutter.  The 
box  forms  are  simplest  of  all,  but  the  cheaper  folding 
forms  are  more  convenient  in  the  larger  sizes.  Those 
models  which  have  to  be  focused  and  are  fitted  with 
rapid  rectilinear  lenses  and  shutters  with  many  speeds 
are,  however,  capable  of  doing  much  better  work  if  one 
is  willing  to  learn  to  use  them  properly. 

If  a  plate  camera  is  desired,  a  large  variety  is  offered 
by  the  numerous  firms  which  advertise  in  the  columns 
of  American  Photography.  Catalogs  of  their  cameras 
may  be  had  from  any  firm  on  request,  and  they  will  be 
glad  to  refer  you  to  their  nearest  agents.     The  size  is 


8     THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY 

a  matter  that  depends  on  the  pocketbook  of  the  pur- 
chaser, but  should  usually  not  be  smaller  than  3  j  x  4^. 
If  possible,  get  the  folding  style  with  focusing  attach- 
ment, a  rectilinear  lens,  a  shutter  with  a  fair  number  of 
speeds  and  iris  diaphragm,  and  a  rising  front  and 
swingback. 

We  shall  now  endeavor  to  show  the  advantage  of 
getting  an  instrument  embodying  these  features.  A 
camera  smaller  than  3!  x  4j  becomes  unsatisfactory 
for  contact  prints  after  the  beginner  has  advanced  a 
little,  as  they  are  too  small  to  frame  or  exhibit.  A 
folding  camera  with  groundglass  for  focusing  enables 
one  to  see  the  picture  full  size  on  the  plate,  and  to  com- 
pose it  with  more  accuracy.  The  folding  camera  is 
more  convenient  to  carry,  taking  up  less  room  than 
the  box  variety. 

Of  course,  if  one  uses  a  small  camera,  it  is  possible 
to  have  bromide  enlargements  made  from  the  nega- 
tives and  such  enlargements  are  often  as  good  as  direct 
prints  made  with  a  larger  camera.  The  majority  of 
amateurs,  however,  use  the  4  x  5  or  3j  x  5I,  which  are 
now  recognized  as  standard  sizes. 

Rigidity  in  the  camera  is  the  most  essential  thing. 
Many  cameras  are  altogether  too  flimsy  in  construc- 
tion, hard  use  quickly  reducing  one  of  them  to  an  old 
rattletrap  box  which  will  work  in  a  dead  calm,  but  is 
only  too  likely  to  go  back  on  you  at  a  critical  moment. 
Great  improvement  in  other  styles  has  been  made  in 
recent  years,  but  the  improved  view  camera  still  re- 
tains, for  serious  work,  the  first  position.  The  long 
focus  hand  and  stand  style  is  more  compact,  and,  in 
the  best  makes,  almost  as  rigid  and  strong.  Some 
cameras  are  handicapped  by  poor  plateholders.     In 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY      9 

general,  those  having  metal  springs  to  be  drawn  down 
by  the  finger  are  to  be  avoided,  because  they  almost 
always  allow  the  plate  occasionally  to  slip  off  enough 
to  block  the  slide,  in  which  case  a  trip  to  a  darkroom 
must  be  made  to  save  the  exposure.  This  defect  could 
easily  be  overcome  by  making  a  tiny  metal  tongue  at 
right  angles  to  the  face  of  the  spring.  In  any  case, 
however,  the  holder  one  uses  is  governed  by  the  make 
of  camera  selected,  so  it  is  advisable  to  choose  for  good 
holders  as  much  as  for  a  good  box.  Another  most  im- 
portant point  is  that  the  light  trap  must  be  absolutely 
efficient.  This  is  the  device  for  preventing  light  from 
leaking  into  the  plateholder  when  the  slide  is  with- 
drawn or  inserted. 

Having,  then,  a  solid  view  box  with  suitable  holders 
(and  simple  but  perfectly  efficient  wooden  kits  for 
smaller  plates  if  desired),  one  is  provided  with  a 
splendid  camera  for  indoor  and  copying  work,  day- 
light enlarging  and  other  applications,  besides  its 
primary  use  for  landscapes.  Perhaps  the  best  type  is 
that  having  both  front  and  back  focus,  as  this  kind 
permits  the  use  of  a  wide  angle  lens  when  necessary. 
Having  this  much,  the  next  consideration  is  the  lens. 

The  Lens.  —  A  rectilinear  lens  is  the  best  all  around 
lens  for  the  beginner,  although  more  expensive  lenses, 
known  as  anastigmats,  may  be  had  at  various  prices. 
Catalogues  may  be  had  from  all  photographic  dealers. 
If  one's  resources  are  ample,  one  of  these  modern 
anastigmats  is  the  thing  to  get.  All  are  capable  of 
giving  critical  definition  to  the  corners,  a  quality 
which  is  of  the  utmost  value  when  needed.  The  com- 
mon rapid  rectilinear,  convertible  or  symmetrical,  will 
not  always  cover  its  plate  with  the  large  stop.     As  a 


lo    THE  ELEMENTS   OF  PHOTOGRAPHY 

rule,  the  corrections  for  spherical  aberration  and  flat- 
ness of  field  do  not  extend  to  the  margin  of  the  plate, 
and  one  must  stop  down  to  U.  S.  i6  or  32  to  get  good 
covering  power.  This  takes  much  of  the  atmosphere 
and  roundness  out  of  the  picture.  An  anastigmat,  on 
the  other  hand,  actually  working  at  its  full  aperture, 
gives  these  qualities,  and  needs  to  be  stopped  down 
only  to  get  depth  or  to  sharpen  the  foreground  properly. 
With  the  cheap  lens  one  must  use  rapid  plates  which 
have  little  latitude;  with  the  anastigmat  one  can  use 
the  slow  brands,  particularly  the  red-sensitive  plates, 
without  having  to  resort  to  long  time-exposures. 

There  are  three  anastigmats  which  lend  themselves 
very  well  to  the  production  of  pictorial  work  with 
softer  definition.  The  Dallmeyer  is  so  calculated  that 
by  unscrewing  one  of  the  lenses  a  uniform  softening  of 
the  image  takes  place  through  the  introduction  of  a 
small  amount  of  spherical  aberration.  The  Cooke 
also  has  this  property  when  the  front  glass  is  loosened. 
The  normal  lenses,  notwithstanding,  will  give  micro- 
scopic sharpness  when  this  is  desired.  The  Wollensak 
Velostigmat/  :  4.5  has  a  diffusing  device  in  the  larger 
sizes.  Special  lenses  are  also  made  for  soft  effects, 
such  as  are  desired  by  more  advanced  workers  who 
prefer  not  to  have  too  much  detail  in  the  unimportant 
parts  of  the  picture.  An  old  single  landscape  lens 
works  well  if  opened  up  to  a  larger  diaphragm,  and 
can  often  be  picked  up  very  cheaply.  Certain  special 
lenses,  generally  known  as  "soft-focus,"  or  semi-achro- 
matic lenses,  are  particularly  designed  to  possess  an 
unusual  amount  of  spherical  aberration. 

Other  Parts  of  the  Camera.  —  The  shutter  is  in- 
dispensable in  these  days  of  snapshot  photography, 


THE   ELEMENTS  OF   PHOTOGRAPHY    ii 

and  the  speeds  should  be  at  legist  as  follows:  Time, 
bulb,  I  sec,  I  sec,  ^  sec,  ^  sec,  ^  sec,  y^^  sec 
The  stops,  of  course,  are  part  of  the  shutter  and  are 
nearly  as  necessary.  If  an  anastigmat  lens  is  pur- 
chased, it  is  advisable  to  buy  the  best  shutter  one  can 
afford,  in  order  to  be  able  to  do  speed  work  up  to  tW» 
Tjixr  or  even  ^^^  second  and  higher.  It  is  best  to  test 
the  speeds  at  frequent  intervals,  to  know  what  the 
values  really  are.  All  shutters  will  change  in  speed, 
from  dust,  rust,  friction  or  change  of  temperature,  and 
in  some  cases,  a  change  of  position  of  the  camera  intro- 
duces marked  variations.  In  fact,  the  inaccuracy  of 
shutter  markings  and  variability  of  speeds  are  de- 
serving of  far  more  attention  than  most  makers  have 
given  them. 

The  rising  front  enables  one  to  eliminate  an  objec- 
tionable foreground  without  tipping  the  camera  up. 
If,  when  photographing  a  high  object,  it  is  found  neces- 
sary to  tip  the  camera  in  order  to  get  the  entire  object 
on  the  plate,  the  swingback  comes  into  play  and  evens 
up  the  picture,  as  will  be  explained  later. 

For  a  tripod  choose  a  solid,  well  made  wooden  one, 
in  three  or  more  sections,  which  with  large  cameras 
will  pack  into  the  space  provided  in  the  carrying  case. 
A  metal  or  wooden  tripod  stay  is  often  useful,  and  it  is 
a  good  plan  to  see  that  the  legs  of  the  tripod  are  pro- 
vided with  some  device  which  makes  their  accidental 
detachment  impossible.  The  writer's  is  fitted  with 
brass  turnbuckles  which  spread  out  the  legs  rigidly 
against  their  pins  and  strengthen  the  top  remarkably. 

The  last,  but  not  the  least  important,  part  of  the 
outfit  is  a  good  exposure  guide.  Exposure  meters 
which  measure  the  value  of  the  light  by  the  time  re- 


12    THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY 

quired  to  darken  sensitive  paper  are  also  useful  guides 
to  correct  exposure,  and  help  one  most  in  conditions 
unsuitable  for  the  use  of  calculators  or  tables.  Early 
or  late  in  the  day,  when  the  light  is  changing  rapidly, 
they  are  indispensable,  and  their  use  in  interiors  is 
strongly  urged.  The  use  of  a  meter  saves  one  a  great 
many  plates.  Then,  if  one  uses  reasonable  care  in 
selecting  subjects  which  are  worth  while  and  will  make 
permanently  interesting  photographs,  the  expense 
account  becomes  very  slight. 

The  Darkroom.  —  If  plates  are  to  be  used,  a  dark- 
room is  usually  necessary'  for  loading  and  developing. 
For  those  who  wish  to  use  the  tank,  however,  there  is  a 
most  convenient  changing  bag  on  the  market.  This 
allows  holders  to  be  loaded  and  unloaded  and  the  tank 
filled  with  exposed  plates,  etc.  It  is  of  the  greatest 
value  on  tour,  as  plates  can  be  changed  anywhere  in 
broad  daylight.  It  is  easily  possible  quickly  to  change 
a  dozen  plates  inside  the  bag  in  full  summer  sunshine. 
The  essentials  for  a  darkroom  are  the  absolute  shutting 
out  of  all  outside  light,  and  the  providing  of  a  safe 
light.  It  is  well  to  choose  as  large  a  room  as  possible, 
for  the  sake  of  ventilation;  but  a  moderately  large 
closet  will  do,  and  usually  is  chosen  because  of  its  lack 
of  windows.  A  part  of  the  cellar  may  be  partitioned 
off  and  will  be  found  warm  in  winter  and  cool  in  sum- 
mer. The  light  may  be  placed  on  a  shelf  outside.  If 
a  room  with  a  window  is  taken,  the  easiest  way  to 
darken  it  is  to  make  a  light  frame  which  will  fit  closely 
inside  the  window  casing.  Over  this  tack  two  thick- 
nesses of  very  thick  wrapping  paper  on  each  side. 
Dark  felt  or  black  silesia  may  be  used  instead.  Enough 
material  must  be  used  wholly  to  exclude  light.     The 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY    13 

cracks  around  the  door  must  be  looked  to  and  strips  of 
felt  tacked  around  the  edges  if  necessary.  When  all 
is  ready,  no  light  should  be  seen  after  being  in  the 
room  in  the  dark  for  five  or  ten  minutes. 

The  light  used  to  illuminate  the  darkroom  is  red. 
This  is  used  because  the  plates  are  least  sensitive  to  it, 
but  it  should  be  carefully  borne  in  mind  that  no  light 
is  absolutely  safe,  and  that  even  a  red  light  will  spoil 
a  plate  if  it  is  left  exposed  to  it  long  enough.  The 
ruby  lamps  commonly  sold  are  usually  too  small,  and 
it  is  better  to  make  a  lantern.  Dr.  John  Nicol  de- 
scribed his  as  follows  in  the  American  Amateur  Photog- 
rapher: "One  I  have  had  in  constant  use  for  more 
than  twenty  years  was  a  wooden  box  which  cost  ten 
cents  —  not  to  the  grocer,  who  gave  it,  but  to  his  boy 
for  bringing  it  home.  Its  size,  roughly,  is  about  22  x  14 
X  12  in.  I  first  secured  a  good  kerosene  lamp  with  a 
l-in.  wick,  and  in  the  bottom  of  the  box  cut  an  opening 
10  in.  square,  so  that  the  flame  should  be  about  oppo- 
site its  center.  On  sides  and  bottom  of  this  opening 
were  fastened  pieces  of  wood  with  three  grooves,  one 
for  groundglass,  one  for  ruby  —  a  plate  of  the  '  copper- 
flashed  '  variety,  which  I  was  fortunate  enough  to  get 
in  Chicago  —  and  one  for  a  plate  of  pretty  deep 
orange.  The  cover,  which  is  now  at  the  back,  was 
hinged,  the  whole  placed  on  four  legs  2  in.  high,  and  in 
the  bottom,  which  is  an  end  of  the  box,  a  number  of 
I -in.  holes  were  drilled  to  secure  ventilation.  A 
tinsmith  made  a  chimney  fitted  to  slide  tightly  through 
a  hole  in  the  top  and  come  down  to  be  just  over  the 
chimney  of  the  lamp,  and  bent  twice  at  right  angles  in 
the  usual  way.  This  sliding  chimney  I  consider  a  very 
great  improvement  on  the  ordinary  form,  which  just 


14    THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY 

enters  at  the  top,  as  it  prevents  both  smoke,  if  there 
should  be  any,  and  heat  from  lodging  in  the  box, 
making  it  very  hot,  and  smoking  the  colored  glass.  I 
rarely  employ  anything  but  the  groundglass  (for  its 
diffusing  effect)  and  the  ruby;  but  even  with  orange 
added  I  can  read  fine  print  within  some  feet  of  the 
lamp,  and  every  part  of  my  lo  x  8  ft.  room  is  suffi- 
ciently light  to  enable  me  to  find  easily  anything  I 
want." 

To  test  whether  the  glass  used  is  safe  or  not,  put  an 
unexposed  plate  in  your  plateholder,  draw  the  slide 
half  out,  and  expose  it  to  the  light  of  the  lamp  at  a  dis- 
tance of  2  ft.  for  five  minutes.  Then  develop.  If  the 
two  halves  are  alike,  you  can  safely  develop  at  2  ft. 
from  the  lamp.  If  one  half  develops  darker  than  the 
other,  you  must  get  another  red  glass,  or  add  a  sheet 
of  orange  glass  or  paper,  or  you  will  fog  your  plate 
when  developing  at  this  distance. 

Loading  the  Camera.  —  The  loading  of  a  film 
camera  is  accomplished  in  daylight,  and  full  directions 
accompany  each  camera  when  sold.  The  details  vary 
somewhat  for  different  types  of  cameras,  but  are  easily 
learned.  If  you  buy  a  second-hand  film  camera,  send 
ten  cents  to  the  maker  of  it  and  ask  for  an  instruc- 
tion book.  Be  sure  to  give  the  exact  name  of  the 
camera  as  stamped  on  the  inside  of  the  removable 
back. 

Plates  must  be  loaded  in  the  darkroom.  The  opera- 
tion should  be  performed  as  far  from  the  light  as 
possible,  and  it  is  well  to  learn  to  do  it  in  absolute 
darkness,  so  that  it  may  easily  be  done  in  any  acces- 
sible dark  place  when  away  from  home  and  the  ruby 
light,  if  the  changing  bag  is  not  carried.     The  changing 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY    15 

bag  is  most  useful,  for  one  can  readily  learn  to  load 
entirely  by  touch.  The  empty  plateholders  should  be 
piled  up  carefully  together,  and  it  is  well  to  draw  out 
all  the  slides  and  dust  out  the  holders  before  opening 
the  box  of  plates.  A  wide,  soft  brush  is  generally  used 
for  this  purpose  and  should  never  be  employed  for 
anything  else.  It  should  be  used  gently,  especially  in 
cold  weather,  or  the  electricity  generated  by  friction 
will  attract  dust  instead  of  removing  it. 

When  all  is  ready,  open  the  plate  box  by  passing  a 
knife  or  the  thumbnail  around  the  four  sides  to  break 
the  paper  seal.  Take  off  the  outer  box,  turn  upside 
down  and  take  ofif  the  next  box.  The  plates  will  now 
be  found  wrapped  in  black  paper.  They  are  packed 
face  to  face  in  pairs.  The  sensitive  side  is  duller  when 
light  is  reflected  from  it.  This  side  should  be  out  in 
the  plateholder.  Dust  each  plate  gently,  and  lay  it 
in  the  plateholder,  forcing  back  the  end  spring  if  neces- 
sary, so  that  the  plate  will  drop  into  place.  Then  put 
in  the  slide,  taking  care  that  the  white  side  of  the 
wooden  end  is  out.  This  denotes  an  unexposed  plate. 
After  exposure,  the  slide  is  replaced  with  the  black 
side  outermost,  thereby  preventing  double  exposures. 
After  the  holders  are  loaded,  the  plate  box  should  be 
closed  and  all  sensitive  material  carefully  put  away 
before  the  door  is  opened. 

The  plateholders  should  be  numbered,  and  a  careful 
record  kept  of  each  exposure,  with  full  details  of  light, 
time,  etc.  This  will  be  of  great  help  in  developing; 
and  if  the  records  are  carefully  studied  in  conjunction 
with  the  negatives,  a  good  knowledge  of  exposure,  one 
of  the  most  difficult  subjects  in  photography,  will  soon 
be  gained. 


i6    THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY 

The  Parts  of  the  Camera.  —  A  camera  is  a  light- 
tight  box  arranged  so  that  the  plate  may  be  placed  at 
the  proper  distance  from  the  lens.  This  is  usually 
accomplished  by  making  the  sides  of  flexible  leather 
called  the  bellows.  The  bellows  folds  up  like  an  ac- 
cordion for  convenience  in  carrying  and  may  be  ex- 
tended so  as  to  bring  the  lens  to  the  proper  distance 
from  the  plate.  This  distance  is  ascertained  by  look- 
ing at  the  image  as  projected  on  a  groundglass  which 
forms  the  back  of  the  camera  and  occupies  the  same  po- 
sition as  the  plate  will  when  the  plateholder  is  inserted. 
The  back  of  the  camera  is  usually  provided  with  a  swing- 
back  which  allows  the  plateholder  to  be  held  in  a  ver- 
tical position  even  when  the  camera  is  somewhat  tilted. 

At  the  front  of  the  camera  is  the  lens,  through  which 
rays  of  light  enter  and  are  brought  to  a  focus  on  the 
surface  of  the  sensitive  plate.  It  is  provided  with  a 
set  of  diaphragms  or  stops,  which  allow  the  amount  of 
light  passed  to  be  diminished  at  will  and  also,  to  get 
better  definition,  confine  the  light  used  to  that  which 
passes  through  the  center  of  the  lens,  which  forms  the 
most  perfect  image.  At  present  almost  all  lenses  are 
provided  with  iris  diaphragms,  which  may  be  opened 
and  closed  by  moving  a  lever  or  a  ring  on  the  outside 
of  the  lens  mount. 

In  order  to  regulate  the  time  of  exposure,  a  shutter 
is  used  which  may  be  opened  or  closed  at  pleasure  and 
may  be  set  to  give  automatically  exposures  of  various 
lengths.  The  lens  may  usually  be  moved  up  and 
down,  and  sideways,  for  certain  special  purposes.  The 
front  of  the  camera  is  also  often  fitted  with  a  focusing 
scale  and  a  finder,  to  be  used  instead  of  the  ground- 
glass  in  instantaneous  work. 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF  PHOTOGRAPHY    17 

Focusing.  —  In  taking  your  first  picture  with  plates, 
do  not  select  the  family  group,  the  dog,  the  cat,  or  the 
baby.  While  they  are  probably  of  absorbing  interest 
to  you,  they  are  all  very  difficult  subjects,  and  you  had 
better  postpone  them  until  you  are  a  little  more  pro- 
ficient. With  a  film  camera,  you  may  be  able  to  get 
such  subject  early  in  your  career,  if  you  choose  a 
bright  day,  and  keep  them  still  while  you  snap.  The 
pictures  are  very  likely  to  be  entirely  devoid  of  com- 
position, however,  and  interesting  only  to  the  family. 

Assuming  that  you  have  a  plate  camera,  start  to 
take  some  convenient  stationary  object,  partly  well 
lighted  and  partly  in  shadow.  Let  us  assume  that  it 
is  a  house  with  the  sun  on  one  side  and  shadow  on  the 
other.  Set  your  camera  up  at  a  convenient  distance, 
probably  across  the  street.  Do  not  get  exactly  in 
front  of  the  center,  but  take  it  cornerwise.  This  gives 
a  much  more  interesting  picture,  because  it  shows  two 
sides,  each  in  receding  perspective.  Screw  the  camera 
to  the  tripod,  extend  the  bellows  until  the  pointer  is  at 
100  on  the  focusing  scale,  set  the  shutter  to  time  and 
open  it.  The  largest  opening  of  the  diaphragm  should 
be  used.  Now  cover  your  head  with  the  focusing 
cloth  and  look  on  the  groundglass  at  the  back.  You 
will  see  the  image  on,  not  through,  the  groundglass,  and 
upside  down.  It  will  probably  be  almost  sharp. 
Move  the  lens  slowly  forward  and  backward  until 
perfect  sharpness  is  obtained.  It  will  sometimes  hap- 
pen that  the  foreground  and  background  will  not  both 
come  sharp  at  once.  This  can  be  improved  by  using  a 
smaller  stop,  but  it  is  sometimes  necessary  and  often 
desirable  to  focus  on  the  principal  object  and  leave 
other  planes  a  little  out  of  focus.     For  technical  excel- 


1 8    THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY 

lence,  however,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  focus  as 
sharply  as  possible  all  over  the  plate. 

If  there  is  a  house  or  tall  building  at  hand  go  as  close 
to  it  as  possible  still  to  get  the  entire  width  on  the 
plate,  level  the  camera  and  focus.  You  will  at  once 
notice  that  the  top  of  the  house  is  not  on  the  ground- 
glass.  To  get  it  there  you  will  have  to  tip  the  camera. 
The  top  of  the  house  will  now  appear  narrower  than 
the  bottom.  This  is  a  case  where  the  swingback  comes 
into  play.  Use  the  swingback  to  make  the  ground- 
glass  exactly  upright,  and  focus  again.  The  rising 
front,  the  swingback  and  the  stops  are  three  things 
that  are  the  least  understood  and  the  least  employed 
by  the  majority  of  amateurs.  The  proper  use  of  them 
would  improve  many  pictures. 

Use  of  the  Focusing  Scale.  —  The  viewfinder  neces- 
sary with  fixed  focus  cameras  is  also  used  on  folding 
cameras.  In  fact,  it  is  used  on  all  amateur  cameras 
and  on  many  professional  cameras,  too,  for  it  is  not 
always  convenient  to  put  the  camera  upon  a  tripod 
and  focus  it  through  the  back,  so  we  use  this  miniature 
camera,  which  we  call  a  viewfinder,  in  conjunction 
with  the  scale  on  the  side  of  all  folding  cameras.  We 
put  the  pointer  opposite  the  number  of  feet  we  think 
the  object  being  photographed  is  distant  from  the 
camera^  and  then  find  our  subject  in  the  finder,  set  our 
shutter,  withdraw  the  slide  from  the  plateholder  and 
snap  the  shutter.  If  the  camera  is  fitted  with  an 
automatic  shutter  we  do  not  need  to  set  it,  because  it  is 
always  ready  to  snap.  Or,  if  we  are  using  a  film 
camera,  such  as  a  Kodak  or  an  Ansco,  we  have  no  slide 
to  withdraw  from  the  plateholder  because  our  film  is 
always  ready  to  be  exposed,  after  having  been  wound 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY    19 

into  proper  position  immediately  after  each  expo- 
sure. 

Care  of  the  Camera.  —  The  lens  should  receive  as 
much  care  as  possible.  Treat  it  as  a  man  does  his  eye- 
glasses. In  most  cameras  the  frontboard  is  re- 
movable, the  lens  and  shutter  coming  off  in  one  piece. 
Have  a  box  made,  lined  with  black  velvet,  to  hold 
these,  and  you  will  be  repaid  later  for  the  extra  care 
taken.  In  cleaning  or  dusting  the  lens,  remember 
that  the  surface  of  the  glass  is  comparatively  soft  and 
highly  polished.  Clean  your  lens  with  Japanese  tissue 
paper,  as  this  will  not  scratch  the  glass.  Remember 
that  the  lens  is  the  eye  of  the  camera  and  must  be 
treated  as  the  most  delicate  part. 

The  shutter  will  need  very  little  attention  if  not 
roughly  handled,  but  if  it  gets  out  of  order  should  be 
repaired  by  a  reliable  dealer  or  sent  direct  to  the  maker. 

The  camera  needs  a  trifle  more  attention.  The 
bellows  requires  frequent  dusting  inside  and  out 
with  a  damp  cloth,  or  your  negatives  will  show 
specks.  The  bellows  should  be  tested  now  and  then 
for  pinholes  by  closing  the  shutter  and  placing  a 
plate  in  a  holder  in  the  camera  and  withdrawing  the 
slide.  Let  the  camera  stand  for,  say,  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes  in  bright  sunlight.  If  there  are  any  leaks 
anywhere  they  will  show  in  development  of  the  plate. 
Should  the  plate  develop  up  clear,  you  may  consider 
the  camera  safe.  Another  method  is  to  place  an 
electric  light  bulb  on  a  flexible  cord  inside  the  camera 
in  a  dark  room.  Not  only  holes,  but  thin  places,  can 
then  be  easily  found  for  timely  repair. 

Taking  the  First  Picture  —  Films.  —  For  taking  pic- 
tures after  we  have  chosen  a  camera,  how  shall  we  go 


20    THE  ELEMENTS  OF   PHOTOGRAPHY 

to  work  ?  There  are  two  answers,  according  as  we  have 
a  film  or  plate  camera.  As  the  first  camera  of  most 
people  is  a  film  camera,  we  will  consider  this  first. 
Before  loading  the  camera,  or  having  it  loaded,  first 
let  us  see  how  the  shutter  works.  Open  the  camera, 
according  to  the  directions  which  will  be  found  in  the 
instruction  book,  and  then  snap  the  shutter  several 
times,  watching  its  operation  both  from  the  back  and 
from  the  front.  Move  the  slide  or  lever  which  con- 
trols the  stops.  The  largest  one  is  used  in  all  but 
exceptional  cases.  Now  find  out  how  to  make  time 
■exposures,  or  those  in  which  the  shutter  is  left  open 
for  a  considerable  period  compared  to  the  usual  snap- 
shot exposure,  as  for  instance  in  a  dark  interior. 

Having  become  perfectly  familiar  with  the  use  of 
the  shutter  and  learned  what  all  the  projections  on 
the  outside  of  the  camera  are  for,  it  is  time  to  load. 
Open  the  camera,  if  not  already  open.  You  will 
find  an  empty  spool  at  one  side,  on  which  to  wind 
the  film.  Your  full  spool  is  marked  "top  "  on  one 
end.  Be  sure  that  this  is  at  the  top  of  the  camera 
when  you  put  it  in.  Directions  for  this  operation 
will  be  found  in  the  book  of  instructions,  and  the  guides 
for  the  film  in  the  camera  are  marked  so  that  there 
is  no  possibility  of  mistake.  Roll  the  black  paper 
one  or  two  turns  on  the  empty  spool,  and  close  the 
camera.  Now  you  may,  if  you  desire,  turn  the  film 
by  the  key  on  the  outside  of  the  box  until  the  number 
"i  "  appears  through  the  red  window  in  the  back 
of  the  camera,  but  it  is  wise  not  to  do  this  until  you 
are  ready  to  take  the  first  picture,  and  in  this  way 
avoid  the  danger  of  accidentally  exposing  the  first 
film  by  snapping  the  shutter  too  soon. 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY    21 

Do  not  leave  the  camera  in  the  full  light  of  the 
sun  any  more  than  is  necessary.  Of  course,  the 
makers  have  made  it  as  nearly  light-tight  as  possible, 
but  there  never  was  a  construction  of  wood  and 
leather  that  the  sun  could  not  find  a  way  through 
in  a  moderate  time.  So,  if  you  go  yachting,  put  the 
camera  in  the  cabin,  or  keep  it  well  covered,  instead 
of  leaving  it  in  the  stern  sheets  all  day. 

The  cheaper  film  cameras  are  intended  for  use  only 
on  a  bright  day.  The  shutter  is  set  to  a  speed  that 
will  give  good  results  on  ordinary  landscapes  on  sunny 
days  in  summer  from  9  to  3  o'clock,  with  the  largest 
stop.  Before  and  after  these  hours,  fasten  the 
camera  on  a  tripod  and  use  the  smallest  stop  and  the 
quickest  possible  "time  "  or  "bulb  "  exposure.  This 
may  be  tried  between  8  and  10  and  3  and  5  o'clock, 
but  the  results  will  be  uncertain.  Before  and  after 
these  hours,  longer  time  exposures  will  have  to  be 
given,  and  the  proper  times  can  be  learned  only  by 
experience,  or  by  reference  to  the  American  Photog- 
raphy Exposure  Tables  or  the  exposure  meter.  If 
pictures  are  to  be  taken  in  sunlight  on  the  water,  use 
the  medium  stop  for  the  four  middle  hours  of  the 
day,  and  the  large  stop  for  two  hours  before  or  after 
these  limits.  Water  pictures  with  the  sun  covered 
need  about  the  same  exposure  as  a  landscape  with 
the  sun  out.  Landscapes  with  the  sun  covered  will 
require,  at  noon,  a  small  stop  and  quickest  time- 
exposure  you  can  give,  or  a  slow  snap  at  stop  U.S.  4 
(or/8).  For  interior  work  no  rules  can  be  given^ 
but  the  smallest  stop  should  be  used,  to  secure  the 
sharpest  picture  possible,  and  the  time  will  range 
from  20  to  40  seconds  in  the  middle  of  the  day  to 


22    THE   ELEMENTS  OF   PHOTOGRAPHY 

two  minutes  or  more  in  the  morning  or  late  afternoon. 
Exposures  in  the  winter  have  to  be  twice  as  long  as 
in  summer. 

Of  course,  if  a  time  exposure  is  to  be  given,  it 
will  not  be  possible  to  hold  the  camera  in  the  hand, 
as  the  result  would  be  a  blur.  If  a  tripod  is  not  at 
hand,  a  box,  a  fence,  seat,  or  stone  may  be  used  as 
opportunity  offers,  but  some  support  is  necessary. 
When  the  roll  of  film  is  used  up,  it  is  rolled  com- 
pletely off  the  spool,  and  the  camera  is  opened  and 
a  new  roll  substituted.  The  exposed  roll  should  be 
wrapped  around  with  rubber  bands  very  securely  or 
the  end  pasted  down,  and  it  should  not  be  carried 
in  the  light.  Keep  it  in  a  dark  place  until  it  is 
developed,  or  light  may  creep  in  at  the  ends  of  the 
roll  and  the  film  be  fogged  on  the  edges.  The  film 
is  now  ready  for  development.  Most  beginners  have 
their  developing  done,  but  the  appearance  of  the 
image  is  so  interesting  and  instructive  that  you  will 
lose  one  of  the  best  parts  of  the  picture-making  if 
you  do  not  learn  to  develop  your  own  negatives. 

The  First  Picture  with  Plates.  —  The  beginner  who 
possesses  a  plate  camera  may  have  one  with  a  fixed 
focus  lens  and  a  single-speed  shutter,  in  which  case 
the  manipulation,  as  far  as  the  exposure  goes,  is  not 
different  from  that  of  a  film  camera.  If  the  camera 
is  of  the  "hand  and  stand  "  type,  a  tripod  is  necessary, 
and  it  should  be  a  firm  one.  For  quick  work,  such 
as  marine  views,  street  scenes,  etc.,  the  camera  may 
be  focused  by  the  scale,  and  the  picture  located  in  the 
finder.  Whenever  it  is  possible,  as  in  landscapes, 
portraits  and  architectural  views,  the  tripod  should 
be  used,  and  the  focusing  done  on  the  groundglass. 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY    23 

In  taking  high  buildings,  it  may  be  necessary  to  tip 
up  the  front  of  the  camera  in  order  to  get  the  whole 
of  the  building  in  the  view.  When  this  is  done,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  tip  the  swingback  enough  to 
keep  the  plate  in  a  vertical  position,  otherwise  the 
lines  of  the  building  will  converge  toward  the  top, 
making  the  structure  appear  to  be  falling  backward. 
If  the  swingback  is  used,  a  small  stop  is  required  in 
order  to  bring  the  whole  plate  into  focus,  as  the 
top  of  the  plate  has  been  brought  nearer  the  lens 
than  the  bottom,  and  they  cannot  both  be  in  focus 
at  the  same  time  with  a  large  stop.  The  exposure 
is  greatly  lengthened  by  this,  but  in  a  crowded  street 
an  exposure  of  several  seconds  with  a  very  small 
stop  is  often  desirable,  as  no  trace  then  appears  on 
the  plate  of  the  persons  who  had  walked  rapidly 
across  the  field  of  view,  and  the  street  appears  to  be 
empty. 

In  taking  pictures  toward  the  sun,  be  sure  that 
the  rays  of  the  sun  do  not  fall  on  the  lens,  whether 
it  or  its  reflected  light  can  be  seen  on  the  ground- 
glass  or  not.  Shade  the  lens  with  the  hand  or  a 
card  until  the  shadow  covers  the  lens,  taking  care 
that  the  shade  itself  does  not  appear  in  the  picture. 
An  adjustable  lens  shade  can  be  bought  for  a  small 
sum,  and  is  a  valuable  addition  to  the  camera. 

Exposure.  —  The  problem  of  exposure  with  a  shut- 
ter of  many  speeds  is  one  which  will  require  much 
study,  and  it  is  impossible  in  the  space  remaining 
at  our  disposal  to  enter  thoroughly  into  this  ques- 
tion. The  best  way  to  learn  exposure  is  to  buy  and 
study  carefully  No.  i  of  this  series,  The  Secret  of 
Exposure,  or  to  use  regularly  the  American  Photog- 


24    THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY 

raphy  Exposure  Tables.  In  either  case,  you  should 
keep  a  careful  record  of  all  exposures  and  the  results. 
You  will  then  be  able  to  locate  errors  of  exposure,  to 
allow  for  the  variations  of  your  shutter  from  the 
marked  speed,  and  after  some  time  to  feel  reasonable 
confidence  in  your  own  ability  to  gauge  varying  con- 
ditions of  light. 

Stops  or  Diaphragms.  —  With  regard  to  the  stops, 
it  may  be  said  that  there  are  two  systems  in  use  for 
numbering  them.  The  Uniform  System  is  used  on 
all  cheap  cameras  made  in  the  United  States,  and  in 
this  system  the  area  of  each  stop  is  inversely  pro- 
portional to  the  number.  U.S.  i6  is  twice  as  large 
as  U.S.  32,  admits  twice  as  much  light  and  requires 
half  the  exposure.  U.S.  16  is  the  same  as  /  :  16, 
but  in  the  /  system  /  :  32  is  one-fourth  as  large  in 
area  as/  :  16,  and  requires  four  times  the  exposure. 

The  meaning  of  the  numbers  given  to  the  stops  is 
very  simple.  The  stop  marked  /  :  8  has  a  diameter  of 
opening  one-eighth  of  the  focal  length  of  the  lens,  that 
is,  one-eighth  the  distance  from  the  optical  center  of 
the  lens  to  the  groundglass.  Those  numbered  /  :  16, 
/:32,  and/: 64  are,  respectively,  tV>  7V  and  ^\  of  the 
same  distance.  If  the  distance  between  the  ground- 
glass  and  the  lens  is  8  in.,  then  the  diameter  of  /:  8 
will  be  about  i  in.;  that  of /:  16,  ^  in.,/:  32,  I  in., 
and  /:  64,  i  in. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  although  /  :  8  is  twice  the 
diameter  of /:  16,  we  multiply  the  necessary  exposure 
for  /  :  8  by  four,  in  order  to  obtain  the  correct  one 
/  :  16.  The  reason  for  this  is,  that  the  area  of  /  :  8 
is  four  times  that  of  /  :  16,  and  the  amount  of  light 
admitted  is  therefore  four  times  as  much  with  the 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY    25 

larger  stop.  This  is  a  matter  which  is  not  under- 
stood by  most  amateurs,  and  in  many  cases  where 
it  is  understood,  the  exposure  is  seldom  given  in  rela- 
tion to  the  stop  used.  We  give  here  the  correct 
exposure  for  each  stop,  supposing  /  :  8  to  require  one 
second;  /  :  8,  one  second;  /  :  11,  two  seconds;  /  :  16, 
four  seconds;  /  :  22,  eight  seconds;  /  :  32,  16  seconds; 
/  :  45,  32  seconds;  /  :  64,  64  seconds. 

When  possible,  stop  down,  so  as  to  increase  the 
exposure.  This  can  only  be  done  when  photograph- 
ing stationary  objects.  The  reason  for  this  is,  that 
if  you  have  a  subject  the  correct  exposure  for  which 
is  one  second,  and  you  overexpose  by  giving  i^  sec- 
onds, you  have  given  50  per  cent  more  than  correct 
time.  If  the  correct  exposure  is  only  j  second,  and 
you  overexpose  by  giving  ^  second,  you  have  given 
100  per  cent  more  than  correct  time.  Therefore,  the 
longer  exposure  gives  you  more  latitude  and  you  are 
not  so  liable  to  make  mistakes. 

If  you  have  a  symmetrical  lens  and  remove  the 
front  half  to  get  a  picture  twice  as  large,  the  ex- 
posure must  be  four  times  as  long.  If  you  use  a 
color-screen  and  isochromatic  plates,  you  must  give 
from  three  to  five  times  the  normal  exposure,  accord- 
ing to  the  depth  of  the  screen.  This  increase,  or 
factor,  is  supplied  by  the  maker  of  all  good  screens. 

Overexposure  Preferable.  — We  are  in  favor  of  over- 
exposure rather  than  underexposure,  for  the  following 
reasons:  An  overexposed  plate,  if  treated  as  such  in 
development,  can  be  made  to  give  a  good  picture, 
unless  it  is  too  badly  overexposed.  An  underexposed 
one  has  parts,  for  instance,  the  details  in  the  shadows, 
which  are  practically  unacted  upon  by  the  light,  and 


26    THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY 

no  developer  known  will  create  detail  where  none 
exists. 

In  calculating  the  exposure  always  do  so  with  the 
lens  wide  open,  forming  your  judgment  by  the 
amount  of  light  in  the  shadows.  Disregard  the 
highlights;  they  will  come  out  all  right  in  the  de- 
velopment. When  you  have  focused  and  decided 
on  the  exposure  as  above,  stop  down  to  get  the 
required  sharpness,  and  figure  your  exposure  for 
that  particular  stop  as  given  by  the  Tables  or  by 
the  meter. 

Developing  the  Picture.  —  After  we  have  taken 
the  first  batch  of  pictures  and  got  home  with  them, 
we  are  naturally  anxious  to  see  the  result  of  our 
efforts.  For  this  purpose,  we  must  develop  the 
plates  or  films,  and  so  must  have  a  darkroom.  Not 
all  of  us  have  the  space  to  spare  for  a  specially  con- 
structed darkroom,  and  so  we  must  employ  some 
makeshift.  If  we  can  restrain  our  impatience  until 
nightfall  we  will  find  that  almost  any  room  in  the 
house  is,  or  can  be  made,  dark  enough  to  allow  of 
developing  in  it.  We  will,  if  possible,  choose  a  room 
which  has  running  water  in  it,  such  as  the  kitchen  or 
laundry.  It  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  have  run- 
ning water  in  the  darkroom,  for  the  plates  are  insen- 
sitive to  light  when  they  arrive  at  the  stage  of  wash- 
ing, but  much  water  is  used  in  photography,  and  it 
is  convenient  to  have  it  always  at  hand. 

The  darkroom  must  be  illuminated  with  light  of 
a  color  which  will  affect  the  plates  as  little  as  pos- 
sible, and  this  is,  generally  speaking,  red.  Cheap 
red  lanterns  are  usually  a  bad  bargain,  and  it  will 
be  better  either  to  purchase  a  really  good  one  at  a 


THE  ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY    27 

fair  price,  or  to  make  one  according  to  the  directions 
given  on  page  13  of  this  book.  As  a  makeshift 
when  a  lantern  is  not  to  be  had,  proceed  as  follows: 
Buy  a  candle  and  a  sheet  or  two  of  orange  postoffice 
paper,  which  may  be  had  of  any  large  dealer  in 
photographic  supplies.  Roll  this  into  a  cylinder 
about  5  inches  in  diameter  and  18  inches  high,  using 
preferably  two  thicknesses  of  paper.  Then  light  the 
candle,  place  it  on  the  developing  table,  and  put 
the  roll  of  paper  around  it.  In  this  way  the  writer 
has  developed  many  hundred  plates,  and  found  it 
perfectly  safe  for  ordinary  plates  or  films.  It  should 
not  be  used  with  an  uncovered  tray  when  developing 
orthochromatic  plates  or  films.  For  these,  and  very 
rapid  plates,  keep  the  tray  covered  during  the  whole 
progress  of  development,  examining  the  plates  as 
little  as  possible.  In  fact,  it  is  better  to  do  this 
with  any  plate  and  light.  Some  light  shines  out  of 
the  top  of  the  cylinder,  but  if  the  ceiling  is  moder- 
ately high,  and  not  too  white,  no  harm  results  from 
this.  If  possible,  in  a  darkroom,  have  the  light  out- 
side, as  this  keeps  the  temperature  lower  and  the  air 
much  purer.  In  this  case,  or  for  a  homemade  lan- 
tern, use  one  sheet  of  ruby  glass  and  one  of  orange 
paper,  renewing  this  latter  at  least  once  in  six  months. 
Having  settled  the  question  of  light,  we  may  pro- 
ceed to  develop  our  plates.  It  is  no  longer  usual 
amateur  practice  to  develop  films  in  the  darkroom,  as 
the  developing  tank  does  the  work  better  and  much 
more  quickly  in  daylight.  If,  however,  it  is  desired  to 
inspect  the  process  of  development,  the  simplest  way 
is  to  develop  the  film  in  a  long  strip,  passing  it 
backward  and  forward  through  a  deep  dish  of  de- 


28    THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY 

veloper,  meanwhile  holding  it  by  clips  made  for  the 
purpose.  Before  this  is  done,  the  film  may  be  soaked 
in  water  until  it  is  limp,  to  avoid  streaks.  The 
light  must  be  very  dim  for  this  purpose,  as  modern 
films  are  orthochromatic,  and  it  is  far  safer  to  develop 
them  mechanically,  as  thereby  the  danger  of  fogging 
is  avoided.  If  it  is  desired  to  develop  the  films 
singly,  cut  them  apart  in  accordance  with  directions 
on  instruction  sheet  packed  with  the  films. 
■  As  to  the  developer  to  be  used  for  plates,  there 
are  many  excellent  ones.  The  best  plan  for  the 
beginner  is  to  use  the  developer  recommended  by 
the  maker  of  the  plates,  the  formula  of  which  is 
enclosed  in  the  box.  The  maker  is  usually  interested 
in  having  his  plates  do  the  best  possible  work,  and 
has  expert  chemists  in  his  employment  to  determine 
the  best  developer  for  his  emulsions.  Every  emul- 
sion requires  a  suitable  developer,  and  if  you  buy 
somebody's  prepared  developer,  you  may  get  satis- 
factory results,  and  you  may  not. 

Mix  your  own  developer.  If  yoii  have  no  scales, 
take  the  formula  to  your  druggist  and  let  him  pre- 
pare it  for  you.  As  soon  as  you  can,  however,  if 
you  intend  to  stay  in  photography,  buy  a  balance 
and  mix  your  own  solutions.  You  will  soon  save 
enough  to  pay  the  cost  of  the  scales.  If  you  must 
buy  a  prepared  developer,  get  one  made  by  a  reliable 
maker  from  chemicals  guaranteed  to  be  chemically 
pure.  Metol-hydrochinon  is  the  most  popular  of 
all  developers,  but  metol  is  poisonous  to  a  few  people, 
so  if  your  fingers  swell  up  and  itch  after  developing, 
stop  using  metol.  Metol  poisoning  may  be  avoided 
by  thoroughly  rubbing  lanolin  into  the  skin  of  the 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY  29 

fingers,  especially  around  and  under  the  nails,  before 
developing,  so  as  to  render  the  skin  waterproof. 

When  ready  to  begin  development,  make  sure  that 
the  darkroom  is  free  from  outside  light,  and  lay  the 
plate,  after  dusting  it,  in  the  developing  tray.  The 
developer  should  be  in  a  measuring  glass  or  tumbler, 
using  about  four  ounces  for  a  4  x  5  tray,  and  is  to 
be  poured  over  the  plate  so  that  it  will  cover  the 
whole  surface  at  one  sweep.  With  a  little  practice 
you  will  be  able  to  do  this  without  trouble.  If  the 
plate  is  not  all  covered  at  once,  some  portions  of  the 
image  may  appear  sooner  than  the  rest,  leaving 
markings  which  cannot  be  eradicated,  as  the  parts 
which  start  later  will  never  catch  up  in  density. 

As  soon  as  the  plate  is  covered  with  developer, 
go  over  the  surface  with  a  tuft  of  cotton  to  break 
any  air  bubbles  which  may  have  formed,  which  would 
otherwise  cause  transparent  spots  in  the  negative. 
Now,  as  the  plate  lies  in  the  developer,  after  a  little 
while  you  will  see  dark  spots  appear  on  the  creamy 
surface  of  the  plate  in  the  places  where  the  strongest 
lights  have  acted  on  the  silver  compounds.  Soon  the 
outlines  of  the  subject  will  appear,  and  then  the 
halftones  and  the  details  in  the  shadows.  By  the 
time  all  the  details  in  the  shadows  come  out,  if  the 
plate  is  properly  exposed,  the  picture  will  seem  to 
"bury"  itself  and  will  be  covered  up,  as  it  were. 
When  this  occurs,  take  the  plate  from  the  dish  and 
look  at  the  back.  If  the  highlights  of  the  picture 
show  on  the  back,  development  is  complete,  and  the 
plate  may  be  rinsed  in  clean  water  and  fixed. 

Incorrectly  Exposed  Plates.  —  If  a  plate  is  not 
properly  exposed,  it  will  not  behave  normally  in  the 


30    THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY 

developer.  An  underexposed  plate  will  come  up  very 
slowly,  and  the  details  on  the  shadows  will  not  come 
out  as  they  should.  There  is  really  no  way  to  save 
an  underexposure.  The  usual  way  of  continuing  the 
development  until  the  highlights  are  all  blocked  up, 
in  the  vain  hope  of  forcing  more  details,  is  the  worst 
thing  that  can  be  done.  The  prints  from  such  a 
negative  will  be  very  hard  —  "soot  and  whitewash," 
as  they  are  generally  called.  The  only  remedy  for 
great  underexposure  is  to  take  the  picture  again. 

Overexposure  is  recognized  by  the  image  flashing  up 
quickly  as  soon  as  the  developer  is  poured  on.  The 
usual  tendency  here  is  to  take  the  plate  out  as  soon  as 
the  image  is  buried,  and  fix.  The  result  is  a  thin,  flat 
negative  which  is  good  for  nothing.  The  best  way  to 
save  the  plate  is  to  take  it  out  of  the  developer  as  soon 
as  it  flashes  up  and  wash  it  well  under  the  tap.  Then 
put  it  back  into  a  strong  developer  with  plenty  of 
bromide  for  a  minute  or  two  and  a  passable  negative 
may  be  obtained.  If  the  overexposed  plate  is  de- 
veloped in  normal  developer  for  the  normal  length  of 
time,  it  will  give  a  negative  with  full  gradation,  but  so 
dense  that  it  will  take  a  very  long  time  to  print. 

Factorial  Development.  —  This  is  a  system  invented 
by  Alfred  Watkins,  an  Englishman,  and  has  many 
advocates.  As  the  result  of  many  experiments  made 
by  two  Englishmen,  Hurter  and  Driffield,  it  has  been 
established  that  the  character  of  the  negative  is  fixed 
by  the  exposure,  and  that  no  modification  of  the  de- 
veloper will  change  this.  Working  from  this  principle, 
Watkins  found  that  there  is  for  every  developer  a 
factor,  which,  multiplied  by  the  time  it  takes  the  image 
to  appear,  will  give  the  correct  time  for  development. 


THE  ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY    31 

For  example,  the  factor  of  hydrochinon  is  5.  If  you 
cover  an  exposed  plate  with  hydrochinon  developer 
made  up  in  any  proportions  or  of  any  strength,  and 
count  the  number  of  seconds  which  elapse  before  the 
first  trace  of  darkening  appears  on  any  part  of  the 
plate,  and  then  multiply  this  number  of  seconds  by 
five,  it  will  give  the  number  of  seconds  the  plate  must 
be  left  in  the  solution  to  get  the  best  possible  negative. 
If  the  image  appears  in  40  seconds,  for  instance,  you 
must  develop  for  200  seconds  from  the  time  of  pouring 
the  developer  on  the  plate.  The  factor  for  metol- 
hydrochinon  is  about  14;  for  metol,  30;  for  ortol,  10; 
for  eikonogen,  9;  for  pyrocatechin,  9.  Many  makers 
now  publish  the  factors  for  their  powdered  developers 
or  for  the  formulas  recommended  for  their  plates. 
"The  Watkins  Manual  "  gives  full  particulars  of 
"  time  "  development  as  well  as  of  the  factorial  system. 
Tank  Development.  —  Although  factorial  develop- 
ment is  very  popular  it  requires  close  attention  and 
continuous  observation  in  the  red  light,  which  many 
people  find  trying  to  eyes  and  nerves.  There  is 
another  application  of  Hurter  and  Driffield's  principle, 
which  has  not  yet  attained  all  the  popularity  it  de- 
serves. This  is  the  method  known  as  tank  or  stand 
development.  For  this  method  it  is  necessary  to  have 
a  box  in  which  the  plates  may  be  developed  in  a  verti- 
cal position.  There  are  now  many  convenient  tanks 
on  the  market.  The  plates  are  usually  held  in  a  basket 
which  can  be  easily  withdrawn  for  the  purpose  of 
examination.  Fixing  boxes,  of  glass  or  rubber,  while 
they  serve  equally  well  for  development,  offer  no  facili- 
ties for  examination  of  the  plates,  which  is  sometimes 
necessary,  though  very  good  average  results  are  ob- 


32    THE   ELEMENTS   OF  PHOTOGRAPHY 

tained  by  developing  for  a  fixed  time  (depending  on 
the  temperature)  with  a  standard  developer. 

The  pyro  tank  powders  sold  by  the  Eastman  Kodak 
Company  for  20-minute  development  are  the  most 
convenient,  particularly  on  vacation  trips,  etc.,  but 
negatives  of  the  most  perfect  quality  are  easily  ob- 
tained by  using  the  following  formula: 

Pyro-Metol  Solution 

Water  to  make 29  oz 

Metol ^  oz 

Potassium  metabisulphite 120  gr 

Pyro 275  gr 

Water  to  make 29  oz 

Sodium  sulphite,  anhydrous 3  oz 

Sodium  carbonate,  anhydrous 2  oz 

For  use  as  a  20-mmute  developer  for  speed  films  and 
film  packs,  at  65  degrees  F.,  take  i  oz.  of  each  and 
22  oz.  of  water. 

The  developer  for  tank  development  may  be  very 
dilute,  so  that  the  process  of  development,  instead  of 
taking  a  few  minutes,  may  last  from  one  to  ten  hours. 
The  time  of  development  may  be  regulated  by  the 
dilution  of  the  developer  used.  The  developer  can  be 
made  so  weak  as  to  take  all  day  or  all  night  for  develop- 
ment if  desired ;  but  if  this  is  done,  the  proper  developer 
to  use  is  glycin.  In  fact,  many  people  think  this  the 
best  developer  for  tank  development.  It  certainly 
gives  excellent  results.     A  suitable  formula  is: 

Water I  oz. 

Sodium  carbonate,  anhydrous i  gr. 

Sodium  sulphite,  anhydrous I  gr. 

Glycin i  gr. 


THE  ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY    33 

Any  desired  quantity  may  be  made  up  in  these 
proportions. 

Thermo  Development.  —  Mr.  Alfred  Watkins,  the 
inventor  of  the  factorial  system,  perfected  the  time 
and  temperature  method  by  furnishing  complete  tables 
of  the  relative  development  speeds  of  plates.  He 
classes  them  from  WQ  (very  very  quick)  to  VS  (very 
slow).  For  instance,  at  60  degrees  Fahrenheit,  in  a 
standard  M.-Q.,  the  WQ  plate  takes  if  minutes  and 
the  VS  plate  ii|  minutes  to  reach  the  same  stage  of 
contrast.  "The  Watkins  Manual  "  gives  complete 
formulas  and  directions,  including  a  method  by  which 
any  user  can  draw  up  for  himself  a  table  of  the  times 
of  development  for  all  temperatures  for  his  pet  de- 
veloper and  any  plate.  The  code  letters  indicating 
development  speeds  are  given  on  the  speed  card  issued 
with  Watkins  meters.  Only  a  brief  explanation  can 
be  given  here,  as  space  will  not  permit  a  full  treatment. 
The  American  Photography  Thermo  Development  Card, 
price  25  cents,  gives  full  instructions,  development 
speeds  and  formulas,  for  preparing  developing  solu- 
tions. 

Development  being  entirely  by  temperature,  no 
inspection  of  the  plate  is  needed,  so  no  ruby  light  is 
required.  The  developer  is  mixed  to  suit  the  develop- 
ment speed  of  the  plate  and  flowed  over  it  in  darkness. 
The  tray  is  then  covered  and  left  until  the  required 
time  is  up,  when  it  is  removed  in  darkness  (or  ruby 
light  if  preferred)  to  the  fixer.  The  thermometer,  a 
watch,  and  a  set  of  tables  take  the  place  of  judgment; 
yet  the  user  can  control  the  contrast  to  suit  his  own 
taste  by  simply  classing  the  plate  higher  or  lower  in 
the  scale.     The  advantages  of  this  plan  are  so  great 


34    THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY 

that  few  who  try  it  with  care  and  compare  the  uni- 
formity of  results  with  the  uncertainties  of  the  old 
methods  ever  wish  to  return  to  the  latter.  It  is 
the  only  satisfactory  method  of  handling  panchro- 
matic or  other  highly  color-sensitive  plates,  as  the 
danger  of  light-struck  plates  is  entirely  ehminated. 
It  applies  to  all  makes  of  plates  and  films  in  either 
tray  or  tank. 

Film  Development.  —  The  day  of  developing  films 
by  hand  is  past.  The  developing  tank  sounded  its 
knell.  With  this  device,  films  are  developed  in  full 
daylight  anywhere.  The  roll  of  film  is  taken  out  of 
the  camera  and  the  black  paper  cautiously  unwound, 
taking  care  not  to  let  the  roll  loosen,  until  the  gummed 
paper  on  the  end  of  the  strip  of  film  can  be  seen;  this 
is  then  wet  and  fastened  to  the  black  paper  backing, 
and  the  film  wound  up  again.  The  end  of  the  black 
paper  on  the  roll  of  film,  which  has  been  inserted  in  the 
carrier  of  the  changing  box  which  accompanies  the 
tank,  is  thrust  through  the  split  rod,  and  the  crank 
turned  to  wind  the  paper  off  the  roll  and  on  the  rod 
until  the  mark  "Stop  "  on  the  roll  is  reached.  The 
celluloid  apron  is  then  fastened  on  the  rod,  the  cover 
placed  on  the  box,  and  the  handle  steadily  turned  until 
the  film  is  wound  up  inside  the  apron.  The  whole  is 
now  removed  from  the  box  and  lowered  slowly  and 
steadily  into  the  tank  of  developer,  moved  up  and 
down  once  or  twice  to  dislodge  possible  air  bubbles, 
and  then  the  tank  is  covered. 

Development  takes  t\venty  minutes  at  65  degrees, 
the  tank  being  turned  upside  down  two  or  three  times 
to  ensure  even  development,  and  the  film  is  then 
washed  and  fixed. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY    35 

Fixing.  —  To  fix  a  plate  or  film,  we  immerse  it  in  a 
solution  of  hyposulphite  of  soda,  usually  called 
"hypo,"  until  all  the  unchanged  silver  bromide,  the 
yellow  part  of  the  film,  is  dissolved  away.  This  takes 
ten  or  fifteen  minutes  in  a  solution  of  one  ounce  of 
hypo  to  four  of  water,  or  a  good  commercial  acid  fixing 
bath,  such  as  is  put  up  by  several  reliable  firms.  The 
plate  is  not  fixed  when  all  the  yellow  color  is  gone,  but 
must  be  left  some  minutes  longer.  This  is  because 
the  hypo  first  changes  the  yellow  compound  to  a  color- 
less one  which  will  not  dissolve  in  water,  and  then 
changes  this  to  another  colorless  one  which  water  will 
dissolve.  Time  must  be  allowed  for  this  second 
change,  which  requires  as  long  as  the  first  one. 

Washing.  —  The  plate  is  now  no  longer  sensitive  to 
light  and  has  become  a  negative.  It  must  be  thor- 
oughly washed,  which  operation  may  be  done  in  day- 
light. The  washing  should  last  an  hour  in  running 
water,  or  the  water  should  be  changed  twelve  times  at 
intervals  of  five  minutes.  It  is  the  best  kind  of 
economy  to  buy  a  good  washing  box  for  plates.  The 
permanency  of  the  negative  is  dependent  upon  thor- 
ough fixing  and  washing,  and  these  processes  should 
not  be  slighted. 

Washing  and  Drying  Films.  —  The  best  way  to 
wash  a  strip  of  film  is  to  fasten  it  with  push  pins  to  a 
board  longer  and  wider  than  the  strip  and  to  float  the 
whole,  film  down,  in  about  a  foot  of  water  in  a  bath- 
tub, changing  the  water  four  times  at  intervals  of 
fifteen  minutes.  Another  good  plan  is  to  make  a 
trough  of  the  board  by  nailing  strips  along  the  edge  to 
confine  the  water,  and  then  hanging  the  board  by  one 
end  under  the  cold  water  faucet.     The  flow  can  be 


36    THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY 

regulated  so  as  completely  to  cover  the  film,  when  20 
minutes'  washing  of  each  side  should  sufifice  to  remove 
every  trace  of  hypo. 

Non-curling  films  are  coated  on  the  back  with  gela- 
tine, so  nothing  must  be  allowed  to  touch  them  while 
they  are  drying.  The  strip  may  be  pinned  to  a  shelf 
away  from  the  wall  and  a  metal  clip  attached  to  the 
lower  end  to  keep  it  straight.  Before  hanging  it  up, 
pass  the  film  between  the  fingers  (or,  better,  use  a 
rubber  squeegee)  to  remove  all  drops  and  superfluous 
moisture,  and  thus  ensure  good,  even  drying  without 
marks  or  streaks.  It  is  best  to  dry  films  in  a  current 
of  air  in  a  place  quite  free  from  dust,  but  not  in  too  hot 
a  place. 

Drying  Plates.  —  After  glass  plates  are  washed  they 
are  cleaned  carefully,  front  and  back,  with  a  wad  of  wet 
absorbent  cotton  to  get  all  the  surface  water  off,  and 
are  then  stood  up  to  dry.  Economy  dictates  the  use  of 
a  good  drying  rack,  which  can  be  bought  for  about  25 
cents.  The  plates  should  not  be  nearer  together  than 
I  inch  or,  better,  2  inches,  or  they  will  dry  too  slowly. 
Set  the  rack  where  there  is  no  dust,  but  at  the  same 
time  in  a  good  current  of  air,  never  in  the  sun  or  too 
near  artificial  heat. 

The  process  of  development  is  one  of  the  greatest 
stumbling  blocks  to  the  amateur.  Even  if  the  plate 
has  been  exposed  correctly,  it  may  be  spoiled  in  de- 
velopment, fixing,  washing,  or  drying,  so  be  careful. 
Use  only  fresh  chemicals  and  do  not  allow  too  much 
light  from  the  ruby  lamp  to  strike  the  film  before  the 
plate  has  started  developing.  Our  lO-cent  booklet. 
Practical  Development,  contains  many  points  for  the 
beginner. 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY    37 

Printing  Processes.  —  After  the  negative  is  dry, 
the  next  step  is  making  the  print.  For  this  there 
are  innumerable  processes  of  varying  grades  of  com- 
plexity. Among  these  may  be  mentioned  blueprint, 
self-toning,  gelatino-chloride  or  printing  out  paper, 
and  the  various  gaslight  papers,  as  suitable  for  the 
beginner;  while  collodion,  bromide,  platinum,  car- 
bon, gum-bichromate  and  bromoil  are  much  prac- 
tised by  those  who  have  had  longer  experience.  We 
will  confine  our  present  remarks  to  the  four  first 
mentioned. 

Blueprinting.  —  This  is  the  easiest  of  all  printing 
processes,  and  gives  good  results  from  broad,  sketchy 
negatives.  It  is  especially  good  for  cloud  and  sea 
views,  but  is  less  suitable  for  subjects  with  much  fine 
detail.  It  is  also  much  used  for  making  proofs,  to  see 
whether  the  negative  is  worth  printing  on  a  more 
expensive  medium. 

The  paper  can  be  bought  in  sheets  of  any  desired 
size.  It  comes  in  tin  cans,  which  should  be  kept 
tightly  closed,  as  dampness  soon  injures  the  paper. 
The  side  to  be  printed  on  is  light  green  or  yellow  in 
color,  and  should  be  placed  in  the  printing  frame 
in  contact  with  the  film  side  of  the  negative.  Print 
in  direct  sunlight  until  the  shadows  are  a  deep  bronze 
color,  examining  the  print  in  the  shade  by  opening 
one-half  of  the  printing  frame.  One  or  two  trials 
will  show  the  exact  depth  necessary  to  print.  Then 
place  the  print  in  cold  water,  face  down,  for  a  few 
minutes,  wash  in  running  water  for  about  twenty 
minutes,  and  pin  up  to  dry  or  lay  on  a  clean  photo- 
graphic blotter,  face  up. 

The  paper  is  easily  and  cheaply  prepared  at  home. 


38    THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY 

Almost  any  kind  of  well-sized  paper  without  ruled 
lines  may  be  used.  Good  writing  paper  is  very  sat- 
isfactory.    The  solutions  are  made  at  follows: 

A 

Water 4  oz. 

Red  prussiate  of  potash 6  dr. 

B 

Water 5  oz. 

Citrate  of  iron  and  ammonia 7i  dr. 

Keep  the  solutions  well  corked  and  in  a  dark  place. 
To  use,  mix  equal  parts  of  A  and  B  and  apply  to 
the  paper  with  a  tuft  of  cotton,  coating  the  paper 
iirst  in  one  direction,  which  will  make  it  look  streaky, 
and  then  across  the  first  lines,  smoothing  out  the 
■streaks.  This  should  be  done  quickly,  and  the 
paper  dried  in  a  warm  place  where  daylight  cannot 
reach  it.  Gaslight  or  lamplight  will  not  affect  it. 
The  best  results  will  be  obtained  by  using  the  paper 
while  fresh. 

Gelatine  Papers.  —  To  get  a  sharper  and  clearer 
print  than  that  given  by  the  blue  paper,  with  a 
glossy  surface  in  addition,  the  paper  to  use  is  what 
is  often  called  P.O.P.,  or  printing  out  paper.  There 
are  many  brands  on  the  market,  and  there  is  little 
choice  as  to  results.  As  each  brand  has  its  own 
peculiarities,  however,  it  is  better  to  adopt  one  make 
and  get  used  to  it. 

The  paper  is  printed  the  same  as  blueprint  paper, 
except  that  thin  negatives  should  be  printed  in  the 
shade  or  under  tissue  paper.  The  paper  is  con- 
siderably faster  than  blueprint  paper,  and  should 
be  examined  and  handled  only  in  a  subdued  light. 


THE  ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY    39 

If  this  precaution  is  not  observed  the  highlights  may- 
be degraded  or  darkened.  The  printing  has  to  be 
considerably  darker  than  desired  for  the  finished 
print,  as  the  image  becomes  lighter  in  the  subsequent 
operations.  The  exact  shade  must  be  learned  by 
experience,  and  as  it  varies  somewhat  with  different 
papers,  this  is  another  argument  for  sticking  to  one 
brand  and  learning  its  peculiarities. 

When  the  prints  are  made,  they  should  be  put  in 
a  dark  place  until  enough  are  done  to  make  it  worth 
while  to  tone  them;  at  the  same  time  they  should 
not  be  kept  more  than  a  day  before  this  is  done,  as 
the  paper  spoils  if  kept  too  long  after  printing,  and 
will  not  tone  evenly. 

Toning. — The  object  of  toning  is  to  improve  the 
color  of  the  print  by  substituting  gold  for  the  original 
silver  of  the  print.  It  thus  becomes  brown  or  purple 
instead  of  the  foxy  red  color  of  an  untoned  print. 
The  first  step  is  to  wash  the  prints  thoroughly  in 
ten  or  a  dozen  changes  of  water  to  remove  all  the 
free  silver.  This  causes  the  wash  water  to  assume 
a  milky  appearance  at  first,  and  washing  should  be 
continued  until  this  no  longer  appears.  This  wash- 
ing is  of  the  utmost  importance,  and  may  last  about 
half  an  hour. 

To  make  the  gold  stock  solution,  buy  a  fifteen- 
grain  vial  of  chloride  of  gold  and  dissolve  the  con- 
tents in  fifteen  ounces  of  water.  This  solution  will 
keep  a  long  time,  and  one  ounce  contains  exactly  one 
grain  of  gold.  For  the  alkali  solution  dissolve  one 
ounce  of  borax  in  eight  ounces  of  water.  This  will 
also  keep  for  a  long  time.  To  prepare  the  toning 
bath,  take  one  pint  of  distilled  water  and  add  to  it 


40    THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY 

four  drams  of  the  gold  solution  and  about  two  drams 
of  the  alkali  solution.  Put  in  a  piece  of  red  litmus 
paper,  and  if  the  bath  is  right  it  will  turn  the  red 
litmus  blue  in  about  four  minutes.  If  the  paper  does 
not  turn  in  this  time,  add  a  few  more  drops  of  alkali 
and  test  again.  Be  careful  not  to  get  in  too  much 
alkali,  as  if  you  do  you  will  have  to  neutralize  with 
acid.  The  bath  should  be  made  up  the  day  before 
and  thus  allowed  to  "ripen."  When  ready  to  tone, 
place  the  washed  prints  in  the  bath,  one  at  a  time, 
and  keep  them  moving,  continually  taking  the  bot- 
tom print  out  and  placing  it  on  top.  Thus  uneven 
toning  is  prevented.  Do  not  have  more  than  five  or 
six  prints  in  the  bath  at  a  time.  The  toning  should 
be  finished  in  about  ten  minutes.  If  it  takes  much 
less,  add  more  water.  In  hot  weather  the  prints  are 
likely  to  blister  if  the  solutions  are  not  kept  cool. 
Ice  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  or  a  few  drops  of 
saturated  solution  of  alum  may  be  added  to  the 
wash  water,  taking  care  not  to  use  too  much. 

After  the  print  has  reached  the  desired  color,  it 
must  be  fixed.  For  this  purpose  use  a  solution  of 
one  ounce  of  hypo  in  twenty  ounces  of  water,  and 
keep  the  prints  well  separated  in  this  bath  for  twenty 
minutes.  Then  wash  well  in  running  water,  an  hour 
at  least,  or  fifteen  five-minute  soaks,  keeping  the 
prints  well  separated,  in  as  many  changes  of  water. 

The  Combined  Bath.  —  While  the  combined  bath 
as  ordinarily  made  up,  containing  salts  of  lead,  gives 
beautiful  tones,  even  after  the  gold  is  exhausted,  the 
prints  made  with  it  are  not  permanent,  and  it  is  not 
to  be  recommended  if  prints  are  desired  to  last  more 
than  a  few  months. 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY    41 

Glazing.  —  If  prints  with  the  smoothest  possible 
surface  are  wanted,  they  should  be  squeegeed  to  a 
ferrotype  plate  and  allowed  to  dry  in  contact.  When 
thoroughly  dry  they  will  peel  off  easily  with  a  perfect 
polish.  The  ferrotype  plate  should  be  absolutely 
clean.  A  thorough  washing  with  soap  and  water 
and  rinsing  with  clean  water  will  usually  ensure  this 
condition,  but  if  the  prints  stick,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  rub  the  plates  with  a  solution  of  wax  in  benzol  or 
parafifine  in  benzine.  Only  a  little  should  be  used, 
and  then  well  rubbed  off.  The  wet  prints,  which 
take  a  better  surface  and  are  less  likely  to  stick  if 
dried  before  glazing,  are  laid  on  the  plate  and  rubbed 
into  perfect  contact  with  a  rubber  roller.  It  is  ad- 
visable to  la)^  a  clean  blotter  over  them  during  this 
process  to  absorb  the  superfluous  water  squeegeed 
out  by  the  roller.  The  plate  is  then  left  to  dry  in  a 
warm  place,  and  when  completely  dry  the  prints  will 
spring  off  easily  when  the  point  of  a  knife  is  inserted 
under  one  corner.  Squeegeed  prints  should  be  in- 
serted in  a  slip-in  mount,  as  the  polish  is  lost  if  they 
are  mounted  with  a  wet  mountant. 

Self -toning  Paper.  —  Some  very  satisfactory  papers 
are  made  with  gold  already  in  the  coating,  so  that 
they  require  fixing  in  hypo  only.  It  is  only  neces- 
sary to  print  them  somewhat  deeper  than  required, 
immerse  them  in  weak  hypo  for  a  few  minutes,  wash 
thoroughly,  and  dry.  Full  directions  accompany 
every  package,  and  the  paper  is  almost  as  simple  as 
blueprint  to  work,  and  gives  much  more  pleasing 
results.  It  can  be  had  in  the  form  of  postcards,  as 
can  all  the  papers  previously  mentioned. 

Developing  Papers.  —  The  popularity  of  develop- 


42    THE   ELEMENTS  OF   PHOTOGRAPHY 

ing  paper  is  mainly  due  to  the  fact  that  it  enables 
the  user  to  obtain  prints  from  their  negatives  by- 
artificial  hght.  Its  manipulation  is  very  simple.  A 
sheet  of  the  paper  is  placed,  face  downwards,  on  a 
negative  in  the  frame,  this  operation  being  carried 
on  in  subdued  gaslight.  The  exposure,  which  varies 
with  the  density  of  the  negative,  will  last  from  ten 
seconds  to  five  minutes  before  a  bright  lamp  or  gas 
jet.  The  paper  is  then  developed  like  a  plate,  the 
image  appearing  somewhat  more  quickly,  and  when 
the  desired  color  is  obtained,  an  immersion  of  ten 
to  fifteen  minutes  in  an  acid  hypo  bath  to  fix  the 
image  completes  the  operation.  The  usual  washing, 
of  course,  follows.  Perhaps  the  greatest  proportion 
of  failures  results  from  improper  exposure. 

Use  Test  Strips.  —  The  best  way  to  ensure  success, 
no  matter  what  the  printing  light,  is  to  test  each  and 
every  negative  with  strips  of  paper  before  attempt- 
ing full  size  prints.  Lay  the  strip  on  the  negative 
so  as  to  cover  the  most  critical  parts,  the  highest 
light  and  the  darkest  shadow.  Make  a  trial  exposure 
and  develop.  Do  not  proceed  to  regular  printing 
until  an  exposure  which  brings  out  the  details  in  the 
whites  is  found. 

It  is  better  to  cut  a  sheet  of  4  x  5  paper  into  several 
strips  and  use  them  all  in  tests  than  it  is  to  print 
the  whole  sheet  and  have  to  throw  it  away  because 
the  whites  are  yellow  or  the  blacks  dirty  in  tone. 

Developer  for  Gaslight  Paper.  —  In  every  package 
of  developing  paper  you  buy  you  will  find  a  formula 
for  making  your  own  developer.  "M.Q."  developer 
is  good  for  any  paper  of  this  kind.  It  comes  in  tubes 
in  powder  form;    also  bottled  in  liquid  form.     The 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY    43 

tubes  are  so  cheap  that  many  prefer  to  buy  them  in- 
stead of  making  up  their  own  developer.  Amidol 
gives  a  beautiful  blue-black,  but  does  not  keep  well. 

Trimming  and  Mounting.  —  The  final  steps  in  the 
making  of  a  photograph,  the  trimming  and  mount- 
ing, are  by  no  means  the  easiest.  The  exercise  of 
due  neatness  and  skill  will  make  itself  ful'y  repaid  in 
these  final  operations. 

It  may  be  that  after  washing  and  drying  the  print, 
it  has  curled  so  much  as  to  interfere  with  the  trim- 
ming. Such  prints  may  be  easily  straightened  by 
drawing  the  edge  of  a  ruler  across  the  back  of  the 
print,  from  corner  to  corner,  lifting  the  print  as  the 
ruler  is  moved  along.  If  the  paper  is  very  thin,  or 
has  a  tender  film,  it  is  better  to  use  a  round  pencil 
rather  than  the  sharp  edge  of  a  ruler,  which  would 
be  likely  to  cause  cracks  in  the  film. 

Most  beginners  trim  their  first  prints  with  scissors. 
Unless  large  shears  are  used  and  the  cut  is  made 
with  skill,  the  result  will  be  anything  but  a  straight 
line.  If  you  are  not  the  fortunate  possessor  of  a 
regular  trimming  board,  the  next  best  thing  to  use 
is  a  sharp  knife.  Lay  the  print  on  a  piece  of  smooth 
glass  or  on  a  piece  of  zinc  and  guide  the  knife  by  a 
ruler  or  by  a  glass  form,  which  is  sold  for  the  purpose. 
This  will  ensure  a  clean  cut. 

Having  settled  upon  some  satisfactory  way  to  trim 
the  prints,  the  next  question  is,  "How  much  shall  I 
trim  off  ?  "  The  beginner  usually  errs  in  taking  off 
too  little  rather  than  too  much.  Often  the  effect  of 
the  picture  is  spoiled  by  having  too  much  of  it  taken 
up  by  a  plain,  uninteresting  foreground.  Whatever 
may  have  been  the  cause  of  this,  such  as  neglect  to 


44    THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY 

raise  either  the  lens  or  the  camera  itself,  the  only 
remedy  now  is  the  use  of  a  ruthless  hand  in  trimming. 
Much  of  this  can  be  avoided  by  a  more  careful  study 
of  the  picture  on  the  groundglass.  In  trimming, 
care  should  be  taken  also  that  the  edges  of  the  picture 
are  square  with  one  another  and  the  horizon  line  if 
this  is  visible. 

Mounts.  —  Regarding  the  choice  of  mounts,  the 
general  taste  nowadays  is  toward  quiet  colors,  gray 
being  the  favorite.  It  is  usually  held  that  the  object 
of  mounting  a  print  is  to  separate  it  from  its  surround- 
ings so  that  the  entire  attention  of  the  observer  is  con- 
centrated upon  the  print  itself;  consequently,  the 
mount  or  the  frame  should  be  so  chosen  as  not  to  in- 
terfere with  this  effect.  But  if  possible,  the  mount 
ought  to  go  further  than  this,  and  enhance  the  good 
features  of  the  photograph.  The  possible  effect  of 
placing  different  colors,  or  light  and  dark,  side  by  side, 
should  not  be  neglected.  A  print  always  looks  darker 
when  mounted  on  a  light  background,  and  vice  versa. 

Mounting.  —  Anyone  who  is  going  to  mount  a  large 
number  of  prints  will  probably  prefer  to  make  his  own 
paste,  but  for  mounting  an  occasional  print  it  is  better 
to  use  the  ready-made  variety.  That  which  comes  in 
collapsible  tubes  is  very  convenient,  as  a  small  amount 
can  be  used  at  a  time  without  having  it  dry  on  the 
surface. 

Most  prints  are  best  mounted  while  wet.  Some 
kinds  of  paper  will  curl  when  soaked  in  water  and  re- 
quire to  be  "flattened."  Lay  a  clean  piece  of  glass  in 
the  bottom  of  a  tray,  cover  it  with  water,  lay  the  prints 
face  down  on  the  glass,  pressing  them  firmly  down 
with  one  hand,  remove  the  glass  with  the  prints,  stand 


THE  ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY    45 

it  up  on  edge  for  about  five  minutes  to  drain  and  the 
prints  will  give  no  more  trouble.  Squeegeed  prints 
are  best  mounted  dry,  as  wetting  them  will  remove  the 
gloss.  It  is  best,  however,  to  wet  the  print  slightly  on 
the  back,  as  the  paste  then  goes  on  more  smoothly  and 
the  print  will  stick  to  the  mount  with  less  rolling.  The 
roller  should  never  be  applied  directly  to  the  face  of 
the  print,  since  it  may  carry  paste  from  one  to  another, 
but  a  piece  of  waxed  paper  or  a  pure  photographic 
blotter  should  be  laid  over  the  face  of  the  print  to 
protect  it.  Always  go  over  the  dry  print,  if  not 
squeegeed,  with  a  damp  cloth  to  remove  any  paste 
that  may  have  been  transferred  to  it.  A  good  flour- 
paste  may  be  made  by  mixing  a  little  flour  with  cold 
water,  and  then  pouring  boiling  water  on  it. 

Dry  mounting  tissue  is  an  excellent  m.ountant,  as  it 
will  not  cause  even  the  thinnest  mount  to  curl.  It  is 
placed  between  the  print  and  the  mount  and  fastened 
by  pressing  with  a  hot  iron. 

Finally.  —  You  may  find  it  necessary  to  read  this 
little  booklet  several  times  before  you  start  out  to  take 
your  first  picture.  After  a  while  you  may  purchase 
books  a  little  more  advanced.  Every  amateur  should 
subscribe  to  at  least  one  photographic  magazine,  such 
as  American  Photography.  You  will  find  it  a  constant 
help  and  stimulus  in  your  work,  and  the  editors  are 
always  glad  to  answer  any  questions  you  may  ask 
about  your  difficulties. 

By  the  time  you  have  become  familiar  with  the 
operation  of  your  camera  and  have  a  fair  idea  of  the 
processes  of  exposure  and  development  to  enable  you 
to  obtain  a  negative,  and  of  printing  and  toning  to 
enable  you  to  obtain  a  finished  photograph,  you  will 


46    THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY 

want  to  know  more  about  indoor  and  outdoor  work. 
We  have,  therefore,  selected  three  subjects  to  speak 
of  more  fully,  viz.:  portrait  work,  landscape  work  and 
interior  work. 

Portraiture  at  Home  —  The  Lighting.  —  In  por- 
traiture the  question  of  illumination  is  all-important. 
If  this  question  of  lighting  is  a  problem  demanding 
serious  consideration  on  the  part  of  the  professional 
worker  with  his  spacious  gallery  and  ample  skylight, 
it  will  readily  be  seen  how  vexatious  a  question  it  is  to 
the  amateur  who  is  usually  obliged  to  be  content  with 
the  light  from  an  ordinary  window.  This  light  may 
be  sufhcient  in  intensity,  it  is  true,  but  it  is  a  concen- 
trated light,  which  is  greatly  emphasized  on  one  side 
of  an  object  while  hardly  penetrating  the  shadow  on 
the  other  side. 

Yet  by  proper  management  of  this  source  of  light 
surprising  results  can  be  obtained.  Better  results 
can  usually  be  secured  in  a  room  than  outdoors 
because  the  light  outside  is  such  a  broad,  open  one 
that  it  is  impossible  to  get  those  fine  gradations  of 
light  and  shade  which  are  so  essential  to  a  pleasing 
portrait.  If  possible,  a  room  with  a  north  window 
should  be  chosen,  since  the  light  will  vary  less  during 
the  day.  The  higher  up  the  window  is  placed  the 
better,  since  it  gives  more  top  light.  If  it  is  neces- 
sary to  work  near  a  low  window,  a  better  lighting  of 
the  face  and  shoulders  may  be  secured  by  covering 
the  lower  part  of  the  window  with  a  dark  shawl. 

In  an  Ordinary  Room.  —  A  good  window  lighting 
may  be  secured  as  follows.  The  sitter  should  be 
placed  the  same  distance  from  the  window  that  it 
measures  in  width  and  on  a  line  with  the  side  of  the 


THE  ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY    47 

window  casing  farthest  from  the  camera.  Now  cover 
the  window  with  a  shawl  or  opaque  blind,  with  its 
upper  edge  level  with  the  top  of  the  sitter's  head. 
Bring  the  camera  about  half  the  distance  from  the 
window  that  the  subject  is,  i.e.,  work  nearer  the 
window  so  as  to  take  more  of  the  lighted  than  of  the 
shaded  side  of  the  face.  Having  focused,  ask  the 
sitter  to  turn  the  head  slowly  away  from  and  then 
slowly  towards  the  window.  A  good  position  is 
with  the  light  falling  strongest  on  the  forehead  but 
crossing  the  bridge  of  the  nose  and  lighting  the  cheek 
on  the  shaded  side.  In  this  position  the  shadow  of 
the  nose  will  come  about  half-way  down  the  upper 
lip.  If  you  can  see  the  color  of  the  flesh  in  the 
deepest  shadow,  a  reflector  is  not  needed,  but  if  you 
cannot  see  color  on  both  sides  of  the  face  it  is  best 
to  hang  cheesecloth  over  the  window  and  use  a  sheet 
as  reflector  until  the  flesh  tints  are  plainly  visible  on 
both  sides. 

Test  the  light  with  the  Watkins  meter  and  give 
the  full  exposure  indicated,  and  you  will  never  say 
that  a  studio  light  is  necessary  for  good  results. 

A  Simple  Studio.  —  For  the  portrait  work  that 
the  writer  has  done  he  has  used  a  corner  of  the  car- 
riage house.  This  makes  a  very  good  studio,  as  any 
amount  of  light  can  be  secured  by  opening  the  large 
sliding  doors,  which  are  about  twelve  feet  high,  and 
by  screening  the  lower  part  a  fairly  good  "  top  light  " 
can  be  obtained.  The  window  is  generally  covered 
with  a  dark  cloth.  The  sitter  is  placed  about  four 
feet  in  front  of  the  background  and  about  five  feet 
from  the  door  and  about  the  same  distance  behind  it. 
By  the  use  of  the  reflector  (white  cloth  tacked  to  a 


48    THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY 

wooden  frame,  or  even  a  sheet  on  a  chair),  light 
may  be  thrown  upon  the  shadow  side  of  the  face. 
The  camera  may  be  easily  moved  about  so  as  to  give 
any  desired  view. 

Background.  —  The  minor  accessories  needed  are 
easily  made  or  purchased.  Cameras  with  short  bel- 
lows can  be  helped  by  using  an  extra  "portrait  lens." 
For  bust  pictures  a  small  background  mounted  on  a 
roller  or  a  frame  can  be  cheaply  obtained.  For  a 
longer  background  a  gray  blanket  or  colored  felt 
hung  in  folds  over  a  line  stretched  behind  the  sitter 
is  good.  A  regular  background  is  much  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  wall  paper. 

Place  the  sitter  far  enough  from  the  background 
to  avoid  the  appearance  of  being  pasted  on  it.  Three 
or  four  feet  will  be  about  right.  Regulate  the  dis- 
tance from  the  window  by  the  amount  of  light,  and 
also  to  a  certain  extent  by  the  character  of  the  sub- 
ject. It  is  often  impossible  to  work  in  a  subdued 
light  because  the  necessary  exposure  is  rendered  too 
long.  By  working  nearer  to  the  window  the  light 
will  be  stronger,  but  at  the  same  time  is  liable  to 
cause  too  harsh  contrasts.  If  necessary  the  window 
should  be  screened  with  thin  muslin.  Do  not  use 
any  but  a  large  stop.  It  is  sometimes  better  for 
portions  of  the  subject  to  be  a  trifle  out  of  focus,  as 
it  gives  more  roundness.  Always  get  the  little  sparks 
of  light  in  the  eyes  —  the  catch-lights  —  sharp,  and 
then  soften  the  focus,  if  that  is  thought  to  be  desir- 
able, by  racking  the  lens  out  (or  the  back  of  the  camera 
to  the  rear)  so  as  to  bring  the  sharpness  forward  and 
let  the  back  of  the  head  and  the  ground  be  less  dis- 
tinct.    The   modern   soft-focus  lens  is  excellent  for 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY    49 

portraiture,  because  of  its  speed  and  the  fact  that  its 
spherical  errors  soften  skin  defects  and  make  it  un- 
necessary to  retouch  if  the  Hghting  is  good. 

The  Pose.  —  The  arrangement  of  the  figure  or  the 
pose  in  a  portrait  is  usually  regarded  as  a  difficult 
matter,  because  the  worker  lacks  that  confidence  in 
himself  which  comes  from  experience  and  from  a 
knowledge  of  his  subject.  A  bust  portrait  is  gener- 
ally undertaken  because  it  is  the  easiest.  The  usual 
difficulty  in  a  pose  of  this  kind  comes  from  an  un- 
natural relation  between  the  head  and  the  body.  If 
the  subject  is  comfortably  seated  the  head  will  often 
assume  a  natural  and  easy  attitude.  As  a  general 
thing,  the  less  the  photographer  handles  or  manipu- 
lates his  subject,  the  more  unconstrained  and  easy 
will  be  the  expression  obtained. 

Look  out  for  Big  Hands.  —  Above  all  things  avoid 
what  is  called  distortion.  You  have  often  seen  pic- 
tures, perhaps  of  a  horse  taken  from  in  front,  in  which 
the  horse's  head  looked  very  large,  the  rest  of  his 
body  far  away.  This  illustrates  what  is  meant  by 
distortion.  The  farther  away  you  place  the  subject 
from  the  camera  the  less  likelihood  there  will  be  of 
your  getting  a  distorted  picture.  Be  careful  that 
the  subject's  head  is  not  too  far  forward  or  the  hands 
too  far  to  the  front. 

Use  of  Supplementary  Lens.  —  By  using  one  of  the 
supplementary  portrait  lenses  on  the  market  better 
effects  may  be  obtained.  These  little  lenses  fit  over 
the  front  of  the  regular  lens,  and  are  made  for  fixed 
focus  cameras,  kodaks  and  regular  folding  plate 
cameras. 

Other  Hints.  —  Do  not  use  a  low  chair  with  wide 


50    THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY 

projecting  arms;  a  piano  stool  is  much  better.  Stout 
people  are  better  taken  standing  than  sitting. 

Take  special  notice  of  the  eyes.  Have  them  fol- 
low in  general  the  line  of  the  face,  turned  toward 
rather  than  from  the  camera,  and  avoid  all  fancy  or 
strained  positions. 

One  more  point  —  and  a  by  no  means  unimportant 
one.  Have  everything  ready  as  far  as  possible 
before  posing  the  sitter,  so  that  the  time  of  waiting 
may  be  as  short  as  it  can  be  made.  Too  long  a 
wait  distracts  the  attention.  This  is  especially  nec- 
essary where  old  people  or  children  are  to  be  photo- 
graphed. There  are  many  other  things  to  learn 
about  portrait  work  and  about  the  improvement  of 
negatives  for  portrait  work,  and  the  subjects  are 
treated  more  fully  in  No.  6  and  No.  9  of  this  series, 
How  to  Make  Portraits  and  How  to  Retotwh  Nega- 
tives. 

Landscape  Photography.  —  Landscape  photog- 
raphy, even  if  it  did  nothing  more  for  its  followers 
than  to  lead  them  outdoors  into  the  bright  sunshine 
and  fresh  air,  would  be  of  great  service.  But  it  does 
far  more  than  this.  It  teaches  something  of  the 
beauty  of  nature,  it  enlarges  the  horizon,  it  shows 
things  of  beauty  which  were  never  observed  before. 
For  the  aim  of  the  enthusiastic  landscape  photog- 
rapher is  not  an  exact  portrayal  of  what  is  before 
him,  but  the  production  of  a  picture,  of  a  composi- 
tion which  shall  convey  some  thought  or  story. 

Scenes  Right  Around  Us.  —  First  let  it  be  stated 
emphatically  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  make  long 
journeys  for  the  purpose  of  securing  beautiful  land- 
scapes.    There  is  plenty  of  artistic  material  right  at 


THE  ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY    51 

our  doors.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  benefits  of  this 
branch  of  photography  that  it  teaches  us  to  see 
beauty  in  the  quiet  pool  or  the  little  nook  that  we 
once  passed  by  as  commonplace.  One  who  cannot 
find  these  opportunities  at  home  will  not  find  them 
at  a  distance,  that  is  sure. 

As  landscapes  are  seldom  seen  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage under  the  bright  glare  of  a  noonday  sun, 
photographs  taken  under  the  same  circumstances  are 
not  usually  the  most  pleasing.  Furthermore,  the  re- 
sult will  be  even  worse  than  the  original  from  the 
tendency  of  photography  to  exaggerate  contrasts  of 
light  and  shade.  Hence  it  is  better  as  a  general 
thing  to  avoid  taking  views  when  the  sun  is  at  its 
height,  but  to  take  them  in  the  morning  or  the  even- 
ing when  the  shadows  are  longer  or  else  while  the 
sky  is  covered  with  fleeting  clouds  which  vary  the 
distribution  of  light  from  moment  to  moment. 

Care  in  Selection.  —  The  point  of  view  from  which 
the  picture  is  taken  should  be  studied  carefully  for 
the  best  results.  It  is  seldom  that  the  one  which 
seems  the  most  convenient  and  natural  is  the  best. 
It  is  not  always  possible  to  tell  which  views  will  look 
best  until  they  are  examined  on  the  groundglass; 
it  may  be  necessary  to  stand  more  to  the  right,  more 
to  the  left,  higher  or  lower,  but  all  this  is  most  excel- 
lent practice  even  if  no  picture  be  the  result.  Do 
not  be  deceived  by  beauty  due  to  different  colors, 
since  this  will  be  all  lost  in  the  photograph.  To  avoid 
this  it  is  sometimes  a  good  plan  to  view  the  scene , 
through  smoked  or  blue  glass. 

The  foreground  often  constitutes  the  picture,  and 
this  fact  should  be  given  due  prominence  in  arrang- 


52    THE   ELEMENTS  OF   PHOTOGRAPHY 

ing  it;  middle  ground  and  distance  are  insufficient 
alone  to  form  a  picture,  but  combined  with  the  fore- 
ground make  an  artistic  and  pleasing  whole.  The 
center  of  the  picture  is  the  weakest  portion  of  it, 
therefore  none  of  the  objects  which  are  really  promi- 
nent should  be  placed  in  the  exact  center.  The 
direction  of  the  principal  lines,  too,  should  be  taken 
into  consideration. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  make  a  view-meter  by  cutting 
a  hole  the  same  proportions  as  your  plate  in  a  piece 
of  dark  card.  Tie  a  string  to  one  end  and  in  the 
string  place  knots  at  distances  equal  to  the  foci  of 
your  lenses.  Then  by  placing  the  right  knot  against 
the  cheek-bone  and  sighting  with  one  eye  you  will 
see  the  composition  as  it  would  look  on  the  plate. 

Beauty  in  Little  Things.  —  There  is  great  beauty 
oftentimes  in  trifling  objects.  Shrubs  and  vines, 
rocks  and  logs  often  can  be  carelessly  arranged  so  as 
to  break  up  the  monotony  of  the  foreground  and 
give  it  an  entirely  different  expression.  Anything 
that  breaks  the  level  and  changes  the  stiff"  lines  gives 
pleasure  to  the  eye,  because  of  the  character  it  gives. 
Scarcely  anything  can  mar  the  effect  so  much  as  an 
unbroken  foreground,  such  as  a  long  expanse  of  grass 
of  uniform  lighting.  The  artistic  photographer  will 
change  his  position  to  avoid  it,  or  if  this  is  impossible, 
will  place  some  objects  where  they  will  aid  his  lines. 

Introduce  Figures.  —  Many  ordinary  views  need 
only  proper  lighting,  and  perhaps  the  introduction 
of  a  figure  or  two,  to  make  a  most  pleasing  picture. 
In  introducing  figures,  however,  take  care  that  they 
are  not  placed  looking  directly  at  the  camera,  as  is 
often  done.     If  the  view  is  one  of  a  little  woodland 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY    53 

lake,  for  example,  would  it  not  be  better  to  have  a 
man  leaning  against  a  tree  looking  at  the  scene  and 
apparently  unaware  of  the  photographer's  presence, 
than  to  have  him  standing  with  his  hands  by  his 
sides,  looking  directly  at  the  camera  ?  Figures  which 
are  not  appropriately  dressed  or  occupied  should  be 
left  out  entirely  or  else  banished  to  the  mid-distance. 

Finally,  never  be  satisfied  with  "good  enough." 
If  not  confident  that  the  view  is  the  very  best  you 
can  get,  do  not  take  it.  Wait  perhaps  for  another 
opportunity;  study  it.  By  doing  this  you  will  soon 
discover  at  what  hour  the  effect  is  best  and  can 
choose  that  time  for  your  work.  Accordingly  your 
picture  will  surpass  in  a  corresponding  measure  that 
of  a  hasty  or  superficial  person  who  takes  the  view 
as  he  finds  it. 

Seashore  and  Marine  Work.  —  We  must  say  some- 
thing about  making  exposures  at  the  seashore  and 
on  the  water,  as  amateurs  spoil  thousands  of  rolls  of 
film  and  boxes  of  plates  every  summer  simply  because 
they  do  not  realize  that  the  light  on  the  water  and  on 
the  sands  is  much  more  intense  than  elsewhere  on 
account  of  the  reflection.  On  a  bright  day  an  ex- 
posure on  the  water  does  not  require  more  than  one- 
quarter  what  you  would  give  an  average  inland  land- 
scape at  the  same  time.  Look  out  for  overexposure 
in  this  work,  therefore.  Use  a  medium  opening  of 
the  diaphragm  and  study  your  exposure  table  care- 
fully. 

Non-halation  plates  are  very  good  to  use  in  this 
work.  They  do  not  cost  much  more  than  the  regular 
plates  and  certainly  give  greater  satisfaction.  In 
fact,  for  any  subject  where  the  reflection  of  light  is 


54    THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY 

very  strong,  it  is  better  to  use  non-halation  plates. 
Many  of  the  best  workers  use  only  the  double-coated 
ortho  plates  for  all  classes  of  work,  and  the  plan  has 
many  very  great  advantages. 

Interior  Photography.  —  Most  of  the  difficulties 
which  make  interior  photography  harder  than  out- 
door work  can  be  traced  directly  to  one  or  two  causes, 
either  the  limited  amount  of  space  available  or  the 
concentration  of  the  light,  and  of  the  two,  the  second 
is  probably  the  worse.  Out  of  doors  there  is  a  great 
abundance  of  light  and  it  is  scattered  or  diffused  in 
every  direction,  so  that  the  question  of  illumination 
does  not  often  require  extended  consideration.  In  a 
room  the  conditions  are  very  different.  The  light  is 
not  so  thoroughly  diffused  and  there  is  not  a  great 
deal  at  best.  Since  the  light  enters  the  room  through 
a  limited  number  of  comparatively  small  openings, 
the  tendency  is  for  it  to  be  concentrated  in  certain 
spots  to  the  exclusion  of  others. 

Lighting.  —  For  this  reason  the  problem  of  illumi- 
nation does  not  resolve  itself  into  the  simple  question 
of  how  much  to  lengthen  the  exposure,  but  requires 
some  study  of  the  source  and  distribution  of  the 
light.  In  regard  to  the  first  point,  much  can  be  done 
by  the  exercise  of  good  taste  and  the  skilful  handling 
•of  materials.  While  it  is  true  that  an  ordinary  room 
is  much  smaller  than  the  bit  of  woodland  that  we 
might  choose  for  an  outdoor  view,  it  is  for  this  very 
reason  much  more  convenient  and  practicable  to 
change  it  to  suit  our  own  ideas  of  what  an  interior 
should  be.  It  is  manifestly  impossible  to  include  the 
four  sides  of  a  room  in  one  picture;  indeed,  most  of 
us,  having  only  a  medium  or  narrow-angle  lens,  will 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY    55 

fall  far  short  of  it ;  for  this  reason  it  is  best  to  choose 
some  particular  corner  which  offers  the  least  difficulty 
in  the  way  of  windows,  drapery,  etc.  Remember, 
too,  that  the  scope  of  the  lens  decreases  quite  sensibly 
with  the  distance,  so  that  it  is  not  of  much  use  to 
try  to  photograph  too  small  a  room. 

Arrangement  of  Furniture.  —  When  you  have  de- 
cided upon  a  particular  corner,  do  not  think  that  all 
the  furniture  in  the  room  must  be  piled  in  that  corner. 
Do  not  change  it  at  all,  for  it  probably  looked  quite 
well  at  the  beginning,  otherwise  you  would  not  have 
chosen  it.  And,  by  the  way,  do  not  think  that  the 
foreground  must  be  absolutely  bare  space.  Let  the 
corner  of  a  chair  or  table  project  a  little  into  the  field 
of  the  lens;  if  it  is  not  too  near  the  camera,  it  will 
improve  the  picture.  Endeavor  to  have  the  room 
look  inhabited.  If  a  sofa  is  shown,  have  the  cushions 
somewhat  tumbled  rather  than  propped  up  with 
mathematical  precision;  if  a  table,  have  a  half-open 
book  placed  carelessly  upon  it;  a  violin,  for  example, 
with  its  bow  and  the  sheet  of  music  laid  across  it, 
apparently  as  if  the  musician  had  but  just  left  it, 
will  illustrate  just  the  effect  which  we  wish  to  pro- 
duce. Those  who  have  seen  the  old-fashioned 
country  parlor  or  "best  room  "  with  its  black  hair- 
cloth furniture  primly  arranged  and  everything  scru- 
pulously symmetrical  will  understand  what  it  is  de- 
sirable to  avoid. 

What  to  Avoid.  —  Whenever  a  mirror  or  picture 
is  included  in  the  field  of  view,  look  out  for  reflec- 
tions or  perhaps  more  will  be  shown  than  was  origi- 
nally intended.  It  is  also  desirable  to  avoid  strong 
contrast.     This  is  one  of  the  evils  consequent  upon 


56    THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY 

the  concentration  of  light  and  can  often  be  avoided 
by  lessening  the  amount  of  light  which  is  admitted 
to  the  room  and  giving  a  longer  exposure.  Try  to 
get  a  uniform  lighting,  even  if  you  have  to  darken  the 
room  so  much  that  an  exposure  of  an  hour  or  two 
is  needed.  A  supplementary  flash  can  often  be  used 
with  advantage.  In  this  connection  a  word  of  cau- 
tion may  not  be  amiss,  and  that  is,  when  giving  a 
lengthened  exposure,  first  secure  the  door  and  thus 
be  safe  from  interruption.  A  dull  day  is  often  better 
than  a  sunny  one,  as  the  diffusion  of  light  inside  the 
room  is  more  even. 

General  Hints.  —  Having  now  settled  the  main 
points,  a  few  brief  suggestions  may  be  of  help: 

A  view  into  another  room  is  often  to  be  preferred 
to  a  blank  expanse  of  white  door. 

Place  your  eye  near  the  lens  and  look  carefully 
for  reflections  from  mirrors,  glass-covered  pictures, 
etc. 

If  the  room  is  dark,  focus  on  a  candle  or  lamp- 
flame  or  rub  a  little  glycerine  on  the  groundglass. 

Focus  sharply  on  a  point  about  one-third  of  the 
extreme  distance  from  the  camera. 

If  the  floor  is  slippery,  stick  the  points  of  the  tripod 
into  corks,  or  use  a  tripod-stay. 

Use  non-halation  or  backed  plates  if  possible,  pref- 
erably double-coated  ortho. 

The  exposure  for  an  interior  is  best  determined 
by  the  use  of  an  exposure  meter.  Mr.  Watkins 
recommends  to  use  such  a  stop  that  the  camera 
exposure  and  the  meter  test  shall  be  equal.  One- 
sixteenth,  one-quarter,  or  the  whole  tint  may  be 
used,  according  to  the  plate  and  the  stop  used.     Do 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY    57 

not  overdevelop  interiors.  More  water  in  the  de- 
veloper and  care  to  take  the  plate  out  before  all  the 
image  is  through  to  the  back  are  essentials. 

Finally,  take  plenty  of  time;  do  not  let  your  friends 
hurry  you.  Look  everything  over  after  things  are 
all  ready  and  you  are  about  to  make  the  exposure. 
If  the  writer  had  done  this  once  he  might  have 
noticed  that  the  large  advertisement  card  that  he 
had  focused  on  was  still  the  most  prominent  thing  in 
the  room  (and  likewise  the  picture). 

Enlarging.  —  In  these  days  of  the  popularity  of 
the  miniature  camera,  to  say  nothing  about  enlarging 
in  a  manual  of  this  kind  would  be  a  serious  omission, 
for  the  effectiveness  of  pictures  made  with,  for  in- 
stance, a  Vest  Pocket  Kodak  or  an  even  smaller 
camera,  depends  very  much  upon  their  being  en- 
larged. And  enlarging  is  not  at  all  difficult  or  com- 
plicated, hardly  more  so  than  contact  printing,  so 
there  is  no  reason  why  an  amateur  should  hesitate 
to  undertake  it.  Enlarging  is  merely  rephotograph- 
ing.  The  small  negative  from  which  an  enlargement 
is  required  is  simply  photographed  on  a  piece  of 
bromide  paper  or  other  similar  sensitive  substance, 
and  the  size  of  the  enlargement  is  governed  by  the 
distance  between  the  lens  and  the  projected  image. 
An  enlarger,  in  essence,  consists  of  an  arrangement 
for  holding  the  negative  that  is  to  be  enlarged  and  a 
lens  and  a  camera  for  photographing  it.  The  box- 
form  enlargers  are  the  most  convenient,  but  the  chief 
drawback  to  their  use  is  the  fact  that  the  relative 
positions  of  the  negative,  the  lens  and  the  sensitive 
paper  being  fixed  once  and  for  all,  the  degree  of 
enlargement  is  unalterable.     When  enlarging  with  a 


58    THE   ELEMENTS   OF  PHOTOGRAPHY 

lantern,  either  by  daylight  or  by  artificial  light,  the 
size  of  the  enlargement  can  be  varied  at  will  by  alter- 
ing the  relative  distances.  Full  descriptions  of  ap- 
paratus and  more  complete  instructions  as  to  their 
use  may  be  had  by  referring  to  Practical  Photography 
No.  5,  How  to  Make  Enlargements,  and  a  practical 
photographer  should  not  regard  his  photographic 
education  as  complete  unless  it  includes  some  actual 
experience  in  making  enlargements. 

Flashlight.  —  Another  subject  that  will  be  found 
not  only  useful  but  interesting  is  that  of  photog- 
raphy by  artificial  light.  This  branch  of  the  work 
should  appeal  to  the  amateur  as  a  new  outlet  for 
pictorial  effort  with  small  outlay  but  with  infinite 
possibilities.  The  work  is  interesting  to  the  photog- 
rapher interested  in  portraiture  because  it  places  in 
his  hands  a  means  whereby  he  can  indulge  in  endless 
experiments  in  lighting  that  would  otherwise  be  de- 
nied him.  It  is  interesting  too,  because  by  means 
of  flashlight  pictures  can  be  secured  under  "home" 
conditions  that  would  be  otherwise  impossible,  and 
subjects  and  scenes  can  be  photographed  which  could 
never  be  represented  at  all  if  daylight  were  the  sole 
illumination.  Flashlight  can  be  used  at  times  when 
daylight  is  poor  to  augment  daylight  and  in  winter, 
more  especially,  a  knowledge  of  its  capabilities  is 
likely  to  be  welcome  to  photographers  who  would 
otherwise  regard  their  occupation  as  gone  during  the 
darkened  months  of  the  year. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  flashlight  apparatus 
on  the  market,  ranging  from  the  simple  and  compara- 
tively cheap  lamp  or  the  Eastman  flashsheet  or  cart- 
ridge holder,  to  the  expensive  and  elaborate  flash-bag 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   PHOTOGRAPHY    59 

operated  by  electricity.  The  magnesium,  "blow- 
through  "  variety  of  lamp  is  inexpensive  and  con- 
venient in  use.  A  flash-sheet,  used  with  its  proper 
holder,  is  very  convenient  and  quite  efficient.  A 
lamp  which  uses  flash  powder,  ignited  by  means  of  a 
percussion  cap,  is  even  better  on  some  occasions  be- 
cause the  flash  is  practically  instantaneous  and  there 
is  very  little  risk  of  movement  during  the  exposure. 
Flash  powder,  sheets  or  cartridges  must  always  be 
handled  with  great  care.  They  are  safe  enough 
under  proper  conditions,  but  might  be  dangerous  if 
handled  carelessly. 


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EXPOSURE-TABLES 

are  the  most  convenient  and  practical  help  in  determining  the  correct  exposure 
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The  new  edition  (90th  Thousand)  has  been  carefully  revised  to  include  all  the 
films  and  plates  on  the  American  market.  In  every  instance  the  speed  has  been 
determined  by  scientific  tests  by  a  renowned  expert. 

The  Tables  assign  to  each  factor  concerned  in  exposure  —  subject,  stop,  light, 
hour  and  plate  —  a  number.  These  are  found  in  the  Tables  and  added.  No  mul- 
tiplication is  necessary.  The  sum  is  then  looked  out  on  a  final  table,  and  opposite 
this  number  is  found  the  exposure  in  fractions  of  a  second,  minutes,  or  hours. 

The  Tables  are  Absolutely  Reliable 

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It's  all  in  the  Exposure ! 

The  fate  of  your  negative  is  irrevocably  sealed  when  you  snap  the  shutter.  Every 
tone  and  gradation  which  can  exist  in  the  negative  is  at  that  moment  locked  in 
the  plate.     No  change  or  modification  of  the  developer  can  give  you  more  detail. 

THE  PRACTICAL 
EXPOSURE    DISC 

will  indicate  for  you,  under  any  conditions,  the  exposure  which  will  give  you 
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PRACTICAL  PHOTOGRAPHY 

THIS  number  of  Practical  Photography  shows  the  aim  of  the  Editors  in  pub- 
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to  master  a  definite  branch  of  photographic  work.  Useless,  impractical  theories 
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information  that  will  be  immediately  helpful  in  the  field  or  workroom.  Illustra- 
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because  of  their  artistic  value.  Whether  in  paper  or  cloth  binding,  the  size  will 
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subscription  for  twelve  numbers.  In  cloth,  per  copy,  75  cents,  or  $7.50  by  sub- 
scription for  twelve  numbers. 

No.  1.  The  Secret  of  Exposure.  If  exposure  is  correct,  all  other  steps  in  the 
makin'?  of  a  good  negative  are  purely  mechanical.  This  number  discusses  exposure 
thoroughly  and  gives  a  complete  system,  with  full  directions,  for  obtaining  correct 
exposure  under  all  conditions,  using  any  plate  on  the  American  market. 

No.  2.  Beginners'  Troubles.  This  number  contains  an  enormous  amount  of 
practical  help  for  every  worker,  novice,  or  expert.  Its  primary  purpose  is  to  show 
the  cause  of  common  failures,  but  in  general  it  is  a  manual  of  photographic  work 
dealing  with  the  production  of  a  perfect  negative  and  a  print  from  it. 

No.  3.  How  to  Choose  and  Use  a  Lens.  Every  successful  worker  inust  know 
what  his  lens  can  do  and  how  it  may  be  used  to  best  advantage.  This  number 
explains  the  particular  qualities  of  each  type  of  lens  now  used  in  photography  and 
deals  particularly  with  the  more  modem  types,  their  differences  and  relative  ad- 
vantages. 

No.  4.  How  to  Make  Prints  in  Colors.  The  desirability  of  making  prints  in 
colors  led  to  the  publishing  of  this  number,  a  careful  choice  of  the  best  methods  being 
made  for  the  guidance  of  our  readers.  The  toning  of  a  standard  black  and  white 
print  to  every  possible  hue  is  explained,  while  the  special  manipulating  processes 
and  the  latest  developments  in  natural  color  photography  are  clearly  described. 

No.  5.  How  to  Make  Enlargements.  No  worker  who  advances  beyond  the 
plane  of  the  tyro  can  produce  consistently  satisfying  results  without  an  enlarger. 
This  volume  tells  the  v/hy  of  the  enlarging  process,  and  follows  it  with  full  and  clear 
information  regarding  the  practical  side  of  enlarging,  including  the  construction 
and  use  of  different  types  of  enlargere. 

No.  6.  How  to  Make  Portraits.  Making  portraits  in  the  home  is  a  branch  of 
photography  of  interest  to  every  owner  of  a  camera.  This  volume  tells  in  detail 
how  to  make  portraits  of  your  family  and  friends,  which  will  be  more  satisfactory 
to  you  than  the  conventional  portrait  made  in  a  studio.  You  need  no  other  source 
of  information  than  this  book  to  make  portraits  of  any  size,  by  contact  or  enlarging 
methods. 

No.  7.  How  to  Make  Lantern  Slides.  An  exhibit  of  slides  from  your  own  nega- 
tives is  a  treat  for  your  family  and  friends.  In  this  volume  the  subject  of  slide 
making  is  thoroughly  covered.  Slides  in  black  and  white,  toned,  or  in  natural  colors 
can  be  made  by  any  camera  user.  A  copy  of  this  book  will  tell  you  how  to  make 
them. 

No.  8.  The  Elements  of  Photography.  An  elementary  manual  for  the  beginner, 
giving  a  concise  but  thorough  description  of  the  fundamentals  of  photography  with 
film  and  plate  cameras. 

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CHEMISTRY  FOR 
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Wm.  R.  Flint 

As  soon  as  the  purely  mechanical  processes  of  making 
prints  by  contact  and  enlarging  methods  have  been 
mastered,  the  photographer  who  is  ambitious  looks  about 
him  for  new  methods  and  mediiims.  It  is  safe  to  say  that 
his  success  will  be  of  a  mediocre  degree  unless  he  under- 
stands the  chemical  laws  and  reactions  which  govern  the 
processes  by  which  a  permanent  image  is  produced  on  the 
photographic  medium  with  which  he  is  working. 

The  author  of  this  volume  is  an  expert  photographic 
chemist.  He  has  developed  a  logical  series  of  experiments 
which  cover  the  chemical  reactions  that  take  place  in 
producing  negative  and  print  on  all  kinds  of  mediums. 
The  reader  who  follows  the  experiments  carefully  — 
either  actually  conducting  them  or  else  studying  the  re- 
actions given  by  the  author  —  will  have  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  underlying  chemical  principles  which  govern 
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work  intelligently  in  any  medium,  and  to  conduct  experi- 
mentary  photographic  work. 

The  volume  is  a  comprehensive  treatise  on  photography 
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for  standard  photographic  solutions  and  emulsions,  which 
are  given  at  the  same  time  as  the  chemical  experiments  so 
that  their  relation  can  be  easily  understood.  The  ap- 
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PRACTICAL   DEVELOPMENT 
HOW   TO   MAKE    GOOD   PRINTS 

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PICTORIAL  LANDSCAPE  PHOTOGRAPHY 

By  JOHN  A.  HODGES,  F.R.P.S. 

Here  is  a  useful  book  that  gives  the  principles  of  landscape  photography  in  a 
nutshell.  The  chances  are  that  after  reading  it,  you  can  study  your  pictures  and 
make  them  more  artistic  by  selective  treatment.  The  illustrations  will  give  you 
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optics  for  Photographers 

Translated  from  the  German  of 

HANS  HARTING,  Ph.D. 

By  FRANK  R.  FRAPRIE,  S.M.,F.R.P.S. 

The  writer  of  this  book  starts  with  the 
fundamental  laws  of  the  propagation  of  light, 
and  carefully  and  logically  carries  the  reader 
through  the  principles  of  geometrical  optics  to 
a  complete  explanation  of  the  action  of  all  types 
of  photographic  lenses,  and  a  description  of 
their  qualities  and  defects.  Only  the  simplest 
mathematics  is  used,  and  this  sparingly.  The 
book  is  brilliantly  worked  out  and  is  indispensa- 
ble in  the  photographic  library,  being  the  only 
modern  and  comprehensive  work  on  the  subject 
in  English.  The  author  is  the  calculator  and 
inventor  of  a  well-known  series  of  high  grade 
anastigmat  lenses;  he  has  the  happy  faculty  of 
expressing  himself  in  such  clear,  simple  lan- 
guage that  no  one  will  have  the  least  difficulty 
in  understanding  his  exposition  of  the  subject. 

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With  the 

Kodak 

Portrait 

Attachment 


objects  within  arm's  length  of  the  Kodak  may 
be  brought  into  sharp  focus — '*close-ups," 
whether  they  be  head  and  shoulder  portraits 
or  pictures  of  relatively  small  objects,  com- 
prise the  Kodak  Portrait  Attachment's  own 
particular  field. 

It  is  simply  an  extra  lens  which  may  be 
slipped  on  or  off  in  a  twinkling  and  neither 
prolongs  exposure  nor  affects  the  operation  of 
the  Kodak  in  any  way. 

The  price  is  fifty  cents. 
EASTMAN  KODAK  COMPANY, 

ROCHESTER,  N.  Y. 

^t  your  dealer's. 


"KODAK 

is  our  registered  and  common- 
law  Trade  Mark  and  cannot  be 
rightfully  applied  except  to  goods 
of  our  manufacture.  When  a 
dealer  tries  to  sell  you  under  the 
Kodak  name  a  camera  or  films, 
or  other  goods  not  of  our  manu- 
facture, you  can  be  sure  that  he 
has  an  inferior  article  that  he  is 
trying  to  market  on  the  Kodak 
reputation. 

//  it  isn't  an  Eastman,  it  isn't  a  Kodak. 


?5 


EASTMAN  KODAK  COMPANY, 

ROCHESTER,  N.  Y. 


PANORAM  KODAK 


A  different  kind  of  a  Kodak  that 
makes  a  different  kind  of  a  print. 
The  lens  automatically  swings  through 
a  wide  arc  during  exposure,  thus  in- 
cluding all  the  view — all  the  group — 
in  a  long,  narrow  picture  that  you 
will  like. 

THE  PRICE 

No.  1  Panoram  Kodak,  scope  112  degrees,  picture 

size,  2%  X  7  inches      ------     $14.40 

No.  4  Panoram  Kodak,  scope  142  degrees,  picture 

size,  ZYz  X  12  inches   ------       24.00 


EASTMAN  KODAK  COMPANY, 


ROCHESTER,  N.  Y 


At  your  dealer's. 


Eastman 
Tested  Chemicals 


This  seal  outside  means  that  the 
chemical  inside  is  absolutely  right. 
Look  for  it  and  find  it. 


EASTMAN  KODAK  COMPANY, 

ROCHESTER,  N.  Y. 


At  your  dealer^. 


^^f-diis/0 


The  freshness  of  spring — the 
natural  tints  of  grass  and  foliage  are 
realistically  reproduced  if  you  print 
on 


KODAK 


After  exposure  by  daylight,  it 
works  exactly  like  Velox  —  and 
nothing  could  be  simpler. 

For  the  occasional  print — 
a  continual  delight. 

EASTMAN  KODAK  COMPANY, 

ROCHESTER,  N.  Y. 

At  your  dealer's. 


GETTV  CENTER  LIBR4R' 


3  3125  00019  0658 


'•■  'i 


Say 


4i 


VELOX" 


To  your  dealer  when  you  are  buying  your 
supplies. 

To  your  finisher  when  you  are  sending  him 
your  negatives. 

To  your  friend  who  wants  a  solution  of 
his  printing  troubles. 

Say  "Velox"  always  because  it  is  the  one 
paper  that  best  answers  every  amateur  re- 
quirement. 

NEPERA  DIVISION, 

EASTMAN  KODAK  COMPANY, 

ROCHESTER,  N.  Y.,  The  Kodak  City. 
At  your  dtaler't. 


